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FOUNDRY IRONS 



A PRACTICAL TREATISE 



ON 



FOUNDRY IRONS: 

COMPRISING 

PIG IRON, AND FRACTURE GRADING OF PIG AND SCRAP IRONS ; 
SCRAP IRONS ; MIXING IRONS ; ELEMENTS AND METALLOIDS ; 
GRADING IRON BY ANALYSIS ; CHEMICAL STANDARDS 
FOR IRON CASTINGS ; TESTING CAST IRON ; SEMI- 
STEEL ; MALLEABLE IRON ; ETC., ETC. 



BY 



EDW^ARD KIRK, 



PRACTICAL MOULDER AND MELTER ; CONSULTING EXPERT IN MELTING. 

AUTHOR OF "the CUPOLA FURNACE," AND OF NUMEROUS 

PAPERS ON CUPOLA PRACTICE. 



ILLUSTRATED 



PHILADELPHIA : 

HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO., 

INDUSTRIAL PUBLISHERS, BOOKSELLERS AND IMPORTERS, 

810 Walnut Street. 

1911 

J 










Copyright, 191 i 

BY 

EDWARD KIRK 



I/-/50Z3 



f:CI.A2Sl>SJ2 



C 



PREFACE. 



This volume has been prepared at the earnest request of 
many founders seeking practical information on FOUNDRY 
Irons and their manipulation in the production of the various 
lines of castings. 

It has been the aim of the author to present, in a condensed 
form, only such matter as is of practical value to the founder 
and to eliminate as far as possible all theories that have not 
been established as principles and all laboratory experimental 
work that has not been fully demonstrated to be useful in actual 
foundry practice. 

It has been endeavored to give all useful up-to-date data on 
the manipulation of Foundry Irons as actually practiced in 
foundries, by both the old and the new methods; and thus, it 
is hoped to place before the founder, foundry foreman, moulder 
and melter such a variety of methods that he cannot fail to ob- 
tain desired results under any and all of the various conditions 
met with in the manipulation of these irons. 

Semi-Steel, the new foundry iron, has been treated on to 
the fullest extent, from knowledge gained by the author in pro- 
ducing this metal and from information obtained from practical 
foundrymen casting it. But by reason of the wide variations 
in foundry pig the satisfactory production of this metal will be 
uncertain until, by experimental work with a grade of pig iron 
used in its manufacture, a standard mixture shall be attained. 
When this has been done a semi-steel may be produced with as 
great certainty as to quality as any of the various grades of 
cast iron. 

The author would acknowledge his indebtedness especially to 
the Report on the Coke Industry by Dr. Richard Moldenke and 

( V ) 



vl PREFACE. 

to the Reports of various committees of The American Foun- 
drymen's Association, The Philadelphia Foundrymen's Associa- 
tion, The American Society for Testing Materials from all of 
which he has freely quoted, as well as to "The Iron Trade Re- 
view," " The Foundry," and other journals. A few papers by 
other authorities have also been included as they are germane to 
the scope of the book, and to which due credit has been given in 
the text, as well as to various other sources of information. 

Finally, it remains o.ily to be stated that the publishers, as is 
their long-established custom, have caused the book to be pro- 
vided with a copious Table of Contents and a very full Index, 
which will render any subject in the book eas}- and prompt of 
reference. 

Edward Kirk. 

Philadelptiia, June, 191 1. 



CONTENTS. 



CHAPTER I. 
History and Sources. 

PAGE 

Iron; Rarity of pure iron; Cotnbiuation of iron with other elements; 
Characteristics imparted to iron by foreign substances; The manu- 
facture of iron an indication of the importance of a nation ... 1 

American advance in new discoveries and improvements in working 
iron; Natural and other compounds of iron; Iron ores; Distribution 
of iron in nature; Principal source of iron 2 

Various names by which the oxides and carbonates or iron ores are 
known; The richest iron ores in this country; Unlimited supply of 
iron ore in this and other countries; Prediction of old iron masters in 
regard to the prices of pig iron 3 

Mixing ores; Location of furnaces in the early days of blast-furnace 
practice; Derivation of the term pot metal; Practice of mixing irons 
from diflFerent furnaces . . . . . . . . .4 

Causes of ores not being always properly smelted in furnaces; The blast 
furnace; Terms applied to the various kinds of iron produced in 
blast-furnaces 6 

Blast-furnaces of this country in early days; Gradual decrease in char- 
coal furnaces; Advent of anthracite furnaces and their principal 
locations 7 

Coke furnaces and their development; Improvement of foundry iron; 
Failure of chemistry to improve the quality of foundry iron . . 8 

Improvement in the coking process of foundry coke; Desirability of 
the elimination of sulphur and silicon from smelting fuel ... 9 

Varied characteristics of coke-smelted iron as a foundry iron; Analysis 
of Connellsville coke 10 

Analyses of other cokes; Report of Doctor Richard Moldenke on the 
coke industry as affecting the foundry, and analyses of various cokes; 
Coke districts of the United States; General statement . . .11 

Description by states; Coke produced in Alabama and average composi- 
tion of it 12 

Colorado coke and its average composition; Georgia coke; Illinois coke; 
Analysis of a coke made from a washed Illinois coal . . . .13 

Kentucky, New Mexico, and Ohio cokes; Pennsylvania cokes and their 

range of composition 14 

(vii) 



Vlii CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Tennessee cokes and their range of composition; Virginia cokes and 
their range of composition; Washington coke 15 

Composition of Washington coke from unwashed coal; West Virginia 
cokes and their range of composition; Value of a standard composi- 
tion; Desirable composition for foundry coke; Solway coke . . 16 

Preparation and constitution of Sol way coke 17 

Average monthly analysis of Detroit Solway coke during 1907, 1908, 
1909, and 1910 18 

CHAPTER II. 
Pig Irons and Fracture Grading Pig and Scrap Irons. 

Classification of pig irons; Charcoal irons 20 

Old-time methods of casting shafts; Iron cannon used in the War of the 

Rebellion 21 

Uses of charcoal iron; Hot-blast charcoal iron. . . . . .22 

One of the tricks of founders; Coke iron 23 

Former grading of coke iron; Grading by chemical analysis; Basis of 

this grading 24 

Anthracite iron; Principal location of furnaces producing this iron; 

Change of anthracite furnaces to coke furnaces 25 

Silver-gray iron; High silicon iron 26 

Requisite quality of high silicon iron as a foundry iron; Proportion of 
silicon that may be used in a foundry iron; Melting high silicon iron 

together with low grade pig or scrap -27 

Melting light scrap and high silicon pig; Content of silicon in pig iron 

now made for foundry work 28 

Scotch pig; Kish 29 

American Scotch pig, and brands of high reputation; Pig iron . . 30 

Sand pig; Chilled pig 31 

Saudless pig 32 

Extravagant claims made for the superiority of sandless pig; Fracture 
grading of pig iron; Causes of difference of hardness and softness of 
iron when smelted from its ores in blast furnaces; Hot or cold work- 
ing of the furnace 33 

Designation of the various grades of pig iron 34 

Chemistry as a recourse in grading; Fracture indications in foundry 
irons; General indications of fracture ....... 35 

Change in these indications by the methods in casting and cooling the 

pig; Indication of the characteristics of pig iron by breaking it . .36 
Present general mode of selling pig iron; Fracture indications in scrap 
iron; Shape of scrap .......... 37 

Burned scrap; Mistake made by founders and melters in judging this 

iron by the fracture 38 

Tricks of trade of junk dealers; Product resulting from melting burned 
iron in a cupola 39 



CONTENTS. ix 

PAGE 

CHAPTER III. 
Scrap Irons. 

Cast iron scrap; Machinery scrap 40 

Car wheel scrap; Stove plate scrap . 41 

Plow and plowpoint scrap; Promiscuous scrap; Steel casting scrap . 42 

Malleable scrap 43 

Wrought iron scrap; Mr. Sterling's patent for toughening cast iron by 
wrought iron; Reasons why this process has not been generally 

adopted 44 

Experiments with small heats of wrought scrap and pig iron; Over-iron. 45 

Shot iron; Old method of collecting this iron 46 

Modern ways of collecting this iron 47 

Melting shot iron; Melting cast iron turnings and borings . . .48 

Charging cast iron turnings and filings ....... 49 

Melting wrought iron and steel turnings and borings . . . .51 

New methods of melting turnings and borings; Mr. Louis Baden's re- 
port on the subject 52 

Briquetting cast iron borings; German method of briquetting of iron 

and metal turnings and chips 53 

Briquets for use in the cupola; Carbon percentage in the iron and 

briquet combination used in the cupola 54 

Melting borings and turnings in the cupola 55 

Mr. Prince's patented process of melting borings 56 

Steel turnings and mode of melting them; W. J. Keep's method of 

melting borings 57 

Melting cast iron borings in the cupola; Mr. T. Shaw's remarks on this 

subject 58 

Use of borings for annealing scale; Dr. Richard Moldenke's remarks 
on this subject .59 

CHAPTER IV. 

Mixing Irons. 

Mixtures of iron; Reasons why mixtures of iron are made . . .60 
Mode of trying a new iron ; A mixture made by one founder of no value 

to another one; Stove-plate mixtures 61 

Machinery mixtures . . • 62 

Mixtures of pig and scrap; Mixtures for soft, strong castings, for a hard 

or close iron, for hard castings, and for chilled castings . . .63 
Remelt iron; Locomotive cylinder mixtures recommended by Mr. Paul 

R. Ramp 64 

Making mixtures 65 

Making mixtures by fracture indications and analyses . . . .66 
Practical knowledge of the characteristics of the irons necessary for 

mixing them 67 



X CONTENTS. 

PAGB 

CHAPTER V. 
Loss AND Gain of Iron in Melting. 

Loss of irou in melting; Results of experiments for determining the loss 
in melting ............ 68 

Estimate of loss upon pig and old scrap; Loss in melting machinery 
scrap; Loss in melting old stove-plate scrap 69 

Loss in melting plow point scrap; Loss in melting shot iron; Test to de- 
termine the loss in melting this iron . 70 

Loss in melting burned iron ......... 71 

Loss and gain in melting pig and scrap iron; Gain in melting 100 net 
tons of pig iron bought in gross tons of 2,240 lbs. . . .72 

Loss in melting 100 tons of scrap irou bought in net tons and sold as net 
tons or pounds; Comparison of the two tables 73 

Stove foundry melting; Tables showing statements of melting per cent, 
of castings, remelt, fuel, and gain in iron in stove foundries of Albany 
and Troy, N. Y 74 

Melting done and results obtained at the Perry Stove Works, Albany, 
N. Y 75 

Determining actual loss of iron; Loss of iron that the founder is liable to. 76 

CHAPTER VL 
Castings by Direct Process. 

Mode of casting castings in the early days of founding; Invention of 

the cupola; Casting business as now carried on by furnacemen . . 78 

Trouble caused by kish; Constitution of kish 79 

Competition due to the direct process; Oxidized iron and its definition; 

Destruction of iron by rust; Hardening effect of oxide. . . .80 
Decrease in the value of cast iron by rust; Oxidation of iron by heat and 

its causes; Effect of the oxide 81 

Nature of the 'iron obtained when remelting oxidized iron; Sandwiched 

hard spots, and their occurrence .82 

Sash-weight metal; Properties required in sash weights; Materials used 

in casting sash weights .......... 83 

Melting the metal for sash weights; Temper in cast iron. . . .85 

Automobile cylinder packing rings 86 

Addition of vanadium to iron 87 

CHAPTER VII. 
Foundry Chemistry. 

Historical data; First experimental attempts in foundry chemistry; 

Commencement of the sale of pig iron by chemical analysis . . 88 
Disappointment in making foundry chemistry a success; Progress by 

the blast-furnace chemist and the steel chemist 89 



CONTENTS. xi 

PAGE 

The metalloid theory; Metalloids deemed of sufficient importance to be 
considered in formulating a standard analysis for the sale of foundry 
irons; Loss of silicon in irons when melted in a cupola . . . 9U 

Use of manganese; Effects of phosphorus and sulphur; Failure of a 
practical foundry chemist in making a mixture by analysis for soft 
castings; The adoption of chemistry as his sole guide by the founder 
not warranted by the results . . . . . . . . .91 

No indication as yet of the metalloid theory to be able to raise the 
standard of cast iron; Furnaces; The cupola the best furnace for the 
manipulation of metalloids ......... 92 

Means for effecting the change in the quality of the iron in the cupola; 
Steel furnaces; Superiority of ordinary cast iron to steel for many 
purposes 93 



CHAPTER VIII. 

Elements and Metalloids. 

Silicon; Presence of silicon in all iron ores; Properties of iron alloyed 
with varying per cent, of silicon; Theory of the effect of silicon on 
the free or combined carbon in cast iron . . . . . .95 

Percentage of silicon in the various grades of anthracite and coke 
foundry pigs; Aim of the founder in making mixtures of these irons. '. 6 

Charcoal pig, and table showing the average per cent, of silicon found 
in the various grades of it; Uses of the higher grades of charcoal irons. 97 

Silicon lost in melting; Change in pig iron by melting in a cupola; In- 
crease in the loss of silicon by improper melting 98 

Silicon as a flux; Attempts to use silicon in its native form as a cupola 
flux; Ferro-silicon as a cupola flux ....... 99 

Ferro-silicon as a softener in ladles . . . . . . . .100 

Carbon in iron; Carbon the most important element in cast iron; Effect 
of carbon upon iron in the manufacture of steel; Researches of Prof. 
Turner 101 

Derivation of our supply of iron; Amount of carbon iron may absorb^in 
smelting 102 

Change in the structure of iron by carbon; Distribution of carbon in 
cast iron . . . . . . . . . . . . .108 

Increase in the bulk of iron by carbon; Carbon the real softener and 
hardener of cast iron; Adoption of the carbon theory by a number of 
foundry chemists; Kish in foundry irons ...... 104 

Prevention of the formation of kish ........ 105 

Manganese and iron; Compounds of manganese; Occurrence of man- 
ganese in combination with iron in iron ores; Effect of manganese 
upon cast iron 106 

Claims for manganese as a hardener and strengthener .... 107 



Xll CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Use of manganese in a ladle; Manganese and ferro-manganese in a 
ladle; Uncertainty of action of manganese in a ladle .... 108 

Phosphorus in iron; Varieties of phosphorus; Effect of phosphorus on 
iron; High phosphorus irons . . . . . . . . .109 

Percentage of phosphorus in the better brands of soft foundry iron; Sul- 
phur in iron; Effects of sulphur on cast iron 110 

Curious experience with sulphur; Hardening iron with sulphur . . Ill 
Oxygen in iron; Tendency of iron to absorb oxygen; Drying the blast. 112 
Oxidizing effect upon iron in melting in a cupola, and its prevention . 113 
Nitrogen in iron; Hydrogen in iron 114 

CHAPTER IX. 
Iron and Other Metai^s. 

Titanium in iron; Effect of titanium on the wearing qualities in the chill 
of car-wheels; Various uses of titanium; Titanium-iron ore deposits. ll-S 

Ferrotitaniuni; Modes of making additions of titanium. . . . 116 

Cost of 10 per cent, and 20 per cent, ferro-litanium in 100 lbs. of molten 
iron and steel ; Aluminum and cast iron . . . . . .117 

Attempts to combine aluminum with cast iron; Effects of aluminum; 
Experiments with ferro-aluminum 118 

Nickel in iron; Effect of nickel in steel; Other metals and cast iron; 
Experiments in alloying various metals with iron in the cupola. . 119 

Untried metals in iron; Vanadium and its chief ores; Deposits of vana- 
dium ores. . . . . . . . • • • • .120 

Use of vanadium in the manufacture of steel; Dr. Moldenke's experi- 
ments in melting burned iron with vanadium; Experiments by vari- 
ous founders with vanadium in castings 121 

Ferro-vanadium; Effect of vanadium on iron 122 

Cost of 10 per cent and 20 per cent, ferro-vanadium in 100 lbs. of 
molten iron or steel 123 

Content of vanadium in French automobile cylinders .... 124 

CHAPTER X. 
Grading Iron by Analysis. 

Pig-iron specifications; Analysis for foundry irons adopted as standard 
by the American Society for Testing Materials; Philadelphia Foundry- 
men's Association standard specifications for foundry pig iron . . 12o 
Proposed standard specification for foundry pig iron; Sampling . . 126 
Percentage of elements; Symbols to designate elements . . .127 

The American Foundryraen's Association standard specifications for 
foundry ])ig iron; Proposed standard specifications for buying pig 

iron; Percentages and variations 128- 

Sampling and analysis 129 



CONTENTS. xiii 



Base of quoting price; Penalties; Allowance; Base table . . . 13(i 

Analysis of castings collected from various parts of the country . . 131 
Method of calculating mixtures for the cupola; Analysis of the castings 

required; Average analysis of the iron and scrap to be charged . . 132 
Tabulation of the material to be charged and method of figuring the 

mixture 138 

CHAPTER XI. 
ChemicaIv Standards for Iron Castings. 

Report on chemical standards for iron castings made by a committeee 
of The American Foundrymeij's Association; Chemical standards for 
iron castings, and sources of the data ....... 134 

Analyses of acid resisting castings, of castings for agricultural machinery, 
ammonia cylinders, and of automobile castings 137 

Analyses of automobile cylinders, automobile fly wheels, balls for ball 
mills, bed plates, binders 138 

Analyses of boiler castings, brake shoes, car castings, chilled and un- 
chilled car wheels, chilled castings ....... 139 

Analyses of chills, collars and couplings for shafting, cotton machinery, 
crusher jaws, cutting tools, cylinders, dies for drop hammers, dia- 
mond polishing wheels, dynamo and motor frames, bases and spiders. 140 

Analyses of electrical castings, eccentric straps, engine castings, engine 
frames, fans and blowers, farm implements, fire pots, fly-wheels. . 141 

Analyses of friction clutches, furnace castings, gas-engine cylinders, 
gears, grate bars ........... 142 

Analyses of chilled castings for grinding machinery, of gun carriages, 
gun iron, hangers for shafting, hardware, heat-resisting iron . . 143 

Analyses of hollow ware, housings for rolling mills, hydraulic cylinders, 
ingot molds and stools, locomotive castings . ..... 144 

Analyses of locomotive cylinders, locks and hinges, machinery castings. 145 

Analyses of machine tool castings, of motor frames, bases and spiders, 
of molding machines, mowers, niter pots, ornamental work, perma- 
nent molds, permanent mold castings .... . . 146 

Analyses of piano plates, pillow blocks, pipe, pipe fittings, piston rings, 
chilled plowpoints, printing presses 147 

Anah'ses of propeller wheels, heavy and light pulleys, radiators, rail- 
road castings, retorts, chilled rolls. ....... 148 

Analyses of unchilled rolls, scales, slag car castings, soil pipe and fit- 
tings, heavy and medium steam cylinders . . . . . .149 

Analyses of steam chests, stove plate, large and small valves, valve 
bushings . . . . . . . . . . . .150 

Analyses of water heaters, weaving machinery, large and small wheels, 
wheel centers, white iron castings, wood-working machinery; Direc- 
tory of pig iron brands; Classification of pig iron; Definition of terms. 151 



xiv CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Basic iron; Bessemer iron; Foundry and forge irons; Classificalion and 
grades of foundry iron 152 

Grading pig iron, ferro-alloys and coke, prepared by Eliot A. Kebler; 
Standard Bessemer 153 

Malleable Bessemer or malleable; Low phosphorus; Washed metal . 154 

Basic iron; Iron graded by fracture; Foundry iron; Forge iron; Mottled 
iron; White iron . . . . . . . • ■ . .155 

American foundry and forge iron by analysis; Southern points; Eastern 
points; Central west and Lake points 156 

Buffalo district; Chicago points; Sampling 157 

High silicon irons; Silvery irons; Ferro-manganese; Foreign iron; Hem 
atite; Thomas Gilchrist or Thomas iron 15S 

Open-hearth basic; English foundry pig; Division of ordinary English 
pig iron's; Middlesboro iron; All Mine foundry pig iron . . . 159 

Scotch pig irons; American charcoal irons; Cold blast iron; Warm blast 
iron 16(' 

Grading of Lake Superior charcoal irons; Coke; Classes of coke; Foun- 
dry coke; Furnace coke; Standard foundry and furnace coke . . IBl 

Smelter coke; Stock coke; Soft, heating or jamb coke; Crushed coke; 
Ferro-alloys; Ferro-aluminum 162 

S. A. M. alloy; Ferro-chrome; Ferro-manganese; Standard ferro-man- 
ganese; Ferromolybdenum ......... 163 

Nickel; Ferro-nickel; Ferro-phosphorus; Phosphor-manganese . . 164 

Silico-spiegel; vSpecial high silicon; Bessemer ferro-silicon . . .165 

Ferro-sodium; Spiegel, spiegeleisen, or mirror iron; Ferro- titanium . 166 

Ferro-tungsten; Ferro-vanadium 167 

CHAPTER XII. 
Analysis and Foundry Chemists, 

Inaccuracy of analysis; Comparative analyses of foundry irons . . 168 
Comparative analyses of Bessemer iron; Comparative analyses of char- 
coal irons 169 

Firms and chemists furnishing comparative analyses; Mode of taking 
samples for the analyses . ....... 170 

Blast-furnace analysis; Mode of sampling and making analyses . . 171 
Cost of analysis ............ 172 

Testing laboratories . . . . . . . • • . ViS 

The foundry chemist; Causes of the bad repute of the chemistry of 

foundry irons; Knowledge the foundry chemist must acquire . . 174 
Importance of mechanical analysis ........ 175 

Mr. H. Hood on the hoodoo in pig iron 176 



CONTENTS. XV 

PAGE 

CHAPTER XIII. 
Testing Cast Iron. 

Definition of test; Methods of making tests; Means of making physical 
tests; Provisions for insuring accuracy . . . . . . .179 

Fracture test; Transverse test; Change of shape; Tensile test; Impact 
test , 180 

Crushing test; Direct physical test; Relative test; Standard test; Stand- 
ard foundry test 181 

Chilled test; Test bars; Necessity of having test bars of exactly the 
same size; Best patterns for test bars 182 

Molding test bars; Length of test bars; Care in casting test bars , , 183 

Tensile and other test pieces . . . . . . . .184 

Strength of cast iron; The strongest part of cast iron; Attempts by civil 
engineers and others to obtain an extra- strong iron by unfair tests . 185 

Adding strength to cast iron; Addition of steel when melting cast iron 
in a cupola; Increase in the strength of cast iron by the addition of 
wrought iron ............ 186 

Strengthening cast iron by the addition of wrought iron or steel drillings 
and turnings; Effect of annealing; Testing machines . . . . 187 

W. J. Keep's testing machines; Testing machines manufactured by 
Riehl^ Bros. Testing Machine Co 188 

CHAPTER XIV. 

Standard Tests. 
Trickery of inexperienced civil engineers and others regarding the 
casting of test-bars; Second series of the American Foundrynien's 

Association tests; Cast B, dynamo frame iron 189 

Composition of cast B . . . . . . . . .190 

Tables of transverse tests of dynamo frame iron ..... 191 

Tables of tensile tests of dynamo frame iron ...... 195 

Table of compressive test of dynamo frame iron ..... 199 

Method of casting test-bars; Extracts from the report of Thomas D. 
West; Effect of thickness and rate of cooling on cast iron; Effect of 
variation in the pouring temperature on the strength of iron . . 200 
Contradictory or at least unreliable results due to the intricate and deli- 
cate nature of cast iron; Necessity of obtaining test-bars from more 
than one grade of iron .......... 201 

Flasks used in making the test-bars . ... , . . . 202 

CHAPTER XV. 

Semi-Steel. 
Historical data; Early use of semi steel by the Whitney Car Wheel Co.; 
Former practice of melting the iron and steel together and casting 
into pigs ............. 202 



XVI CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

First thing necessary in making a setni-steel; Melting steel rails in a 
single charge; Effect of steel in cast iron 205 

Increase of carbon in the metal in making semi-steel in a cupola; Per- 
centage of steel in the mixtures; H. E. Diller on the effect of melting 
steel with iron in the cupola; Table of tests 206 

Comparison of tests 207 

Melting semi-steel; Heat required for this purpose ..... 209 

Mode of charging the fuel, iron, and steel; Drawing the semi-steel for 
large castings 210 

Semi-steel mixtures; Semi-steel mixtures for steam cylinders published 
by James A. Murphy . . . . . . . . . .211 

Calculating semi-steel mixtures; Mixture for semi-steel to be finished 
without annealing 212 

Shrinkage in semi-steel; Semi-steel malleables 213 

Iron and steel founding; Very little in common between the iron and 
steel foundry; The most difficult problem for the iron founder in steel 
founding; Making of steel a separate and distinct business and science. 214 

When the iron founder may engage in steel founding; Strengthening 
cast iron with steel, and reasons for it . . . . . . .215 

Use of steel scrap in the cupola; The production of semi-steel castings 
^proportions of steel used in the mixture — interesting tests. By 
C. R. McGahey; Elastic limit 216 

Semi-steel and ferro-carbon; Use of steel scrap; Necessity of understand- 
ing the fuel and melting conditions 217 

Mixing the materials in the cupola; Silicon and .sulphur; Results ob- 
tained 218 

The wearing qualities of semi-steel versus gray iron, gray iron plus 
steel scrap or without it, the characteristics of semi-steel and the pur- 
poses for which it is best fitted, also certain cautions necessary to 
greatest success with steel scrap in the cupola. By James A. Murphy. 219 

Semi-steel a misnomer; Semi- steel and air-furnace iron; No steel in 
semi-steel 220 

Mistakes in melting and mixing; Failures and founders; Practical 
requirements 221 

Superiority of steel scrap for semi-steel castings; Is semi-steel a mis- 
nomer? By David McLain 222 

Semi-steel mixtures for gasoline engine cylinders, given by J. Jay 
Metzger 223 

Mixture that gives a close grain that machines easily; Percentage of 
silicon and manganese .......... 224 

Quality of piston-rings; Mixtures lor cylinders ..... 225 

Semi-steel gears and mixture for them ....... 226 



CONTENTS. xvii 

PAGE 

CHAPTER XVI. 
Mai,i,eable Iron. 
History; Early discovery of making malleable iron; Results of the 
operations collected by Reaumur; History in this country; Malleable 
iron founding started by Mr. Seth Boy den, in 1826; Silver medal 
awarded to him by the Franklin Institute, in 1828 .... 227 
Monument erected to Seth Boyden in Nevrark, N. J.; Output of malle- 

ables in 1828 and in 1907 228 

Furnaces used b}' Seth Boyden; Patterns and flasks .... 229 
Annealing pots; Iron for malleables; Mixtures for malleables . . 230 

Analysis recommended for malleables; Coke iron suitable for malleable 

purposes 231 

Malleable scrap; Melting furnaces 232 

Data of the various styles of furnace used for malleables; Advantages of 

the air-furnace 233 

Shrinkage of white iron 234 

CHAPTER XVII. 

Anneai^ing of Malleables. 

Annealing ovens; Expansion and contraction of the material used in 
constructing ovens; Temperature for annealing; Indications from the 
color of the heat ........... 235 

Revolving annealing ovens, designed and patented by Walter S. 
Vosburgh 236 

Annealing boxes, and their shape and size; Material used for annealing 
boxes ............. 237 

Wear and tear of annealing boxes; Remelting old boxes; Packing the 
boxes 238 

Methods of getting castings back to their original shapes after anneal- 
ing; Packing materials; General accepted theory of the annealing 
process of cast iron; Oxidizing agents generally used; Another 
theory of malleables .......... 239 

Effect of annealing; Most suitable packing material; Preparing the 
scale; Substances used to increase the rusting tendency of the scale . 240 

Time required for annealing; Use of thermometers; Schemes devised 
for quick annealing .......... 241 

Cleaning castings and malleables; Necessity of careful handling; Phys- 
ical properties of malleable iron; Tensile and transverse strengths . 242 

Torsion or twisting test 243 

CHAPTER XVIII. 
Production of Malleables. 
The making of malleable iron as a business; Gray iron founding a very 
trying and disappointing business; Chances taken by the malleable 
iron founder 244 



xvni CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Cost of producing malleable castings; Expense of running a malleable 

plant 245 

Malleable plants in the United States 24H 

CHAPTER XIX. 
Foundry Note.s. 

Annealing cast iron; Softening hard castings; Production of white iron 
in castings from malleable scrap; A good ladle flux .... 247 

Causes of blow holes; Effects of vanadium when melted with iron; Rat 
tail and its causes ........... 248 

Ferro-manganese as an addition to gear wheels; Transverse strength for 
light castings; Loss of iron in cupola melting; Superiority of the 
cupola over the air-furnace; Impossibility of burning iron in a cupola 

by melting it hot 249 

Hard spots in castings; To prevent shrink holes in castings; Uneven 
shrinkage in castings; Effect of high silicon; Silicon the chemist's 

dope 250 

Iron for grate bars; Iron for sash weights; Molding sand . . . 251 
Dependence of all other employees for their wages on the molder; Non- 
productive labor in a foundry ; Use of waste coke. .... 252 

Tinning cast iron. . 253 

Breaking up cast iron guns; Blow holes in aluminum castings . . 254 
Hardening the face of castings; The behavior of cupola bricks; Cupola 
daubing; Carborundum in the cupola ....... 255 

Welding cast iron to steel; Punched castings ...... 256 

Pickling castings. ........... 257 

Mixture for sand match; Steel^or iron — How browned; Process for tin- 
uiug cast iron ............ 258 

Coppering iron castings; Cleaning foundrj' windows .... 259 

Silvery iron; Change in the sliding scale of silvery pig iron; Table of 
prices ............. 260 

Melting points of cast irons; Method of selling castings; Advantages 
and disadvantages of selling castings by the pound . . . .261 

No reason why the price of castings should be based upon that of pig 

iron, and why castings should not be sold by the piece . . . 262 
Prices per pound obtained by selling castings by the piece; No reason 
why a machine shop should be made to pay for running a fouudry; 
The consumer required to pay for increased weight .... 263 

Advantages of a piece-priced system; Contract castings; Unfair practice. 264 
Necessity of running every plant on a paying basis; Cleaning castings. 265 
Advantage of sand protection to castings ....... 266 

Index 267 



FOUNDRY IRONS. 



CHAPTER I. 

History and Sources. 

Iron. — Pure iron as a metal is more rare than pure gold, it 
being met with only in laboratories and very seldom there, for it 
is of no value in the arts or industries. Unlike gold, it is not 
found in the pure state, but in combination with almost all of 
the known elements and when smelted from its ores remains to 
a greater or lesser extent combined with them. All commer- 
mercial irons are therefore compounds or alloys of metallic or 
non-metallic elements or substances. These foreign substances 
as we term them, for they are not all metals or elements, give 
to iron the characteristics that fit it alike for the plowshare and 
the sword, the construction of huge vessels that plow the ocean, 
of tall buildings that almost scrape the sky, of men-of-war, 
large cannon, and for watch screws so tiny that they can be 
seen only by the microscope or glass, appearing to the naked 
eye like black grains of sand. Without these substances in com- 
bination with it, iron would for many purposes for which it is 
employed be worthless, and its application would be very limited 
indeed. Iron was known to the ancients, and has from the 
earliest historical period been obtained in more or less pure 
metallic state from some of its various metalliferous sources, 
yet new sources from which to procure it and new methods of 
working it have in modern times so multiplied as to almost rank 
it in importance with the discovery of a new and useful metal. 
These discoveries have kept pace with the scientific discoveries 
and improvements of the times so that the application of iron to 
the useful arts has made its use universal, and the manufacture of 
it has become indicative of the importance of a nation. And 
I (I) 



2 FOUNDRY IRONS. 

all civilized nations of the world seem to vie with each other in 
its production, and to this fact we owe all our modern improve- 
ments in its manufacture and working. In these new discov- 
eries and improvements, the Americans have kept pace with 
the world, and why should they not do so, or lead the world in 
the production of iron suitable for every purpose for which it 
can be used, for our resources of this metal and of fuel are 
unlimited, and all that is necessary to do is to develop them. This 
we seem in a fair way to do with our million, hundred million, 
and billion dollar iron and steel companies. There is but one 
iron and that is pure iron, but there are many compounds of 
it and because of its preponderance in them, the generic term 
iron is applied to all of them. Many of these compounds have 
been produced by nature in the ores of iron and many are 
formed in the manufacture, working, and preparing of the 
metal to suit it for the purpose for which it is to be used. Of 
these, there is an endless variety, such as pig irons, wrought 
irons and steels, all of which present different characteristics, 
as well as a large number — not less than thirty-two — of prepa- 
rations of iron which do not exhibit its solid characteristics 
and are employed for medicinal, and an endless variety of other 
purposes. No attempt will be made to describe all these irons, 
the processes of preparing them and their uses, as it would be 
impossible to do so within the limits of this volume. We shall 
therefore confine ourselves to cast iron and endeavor to describe 
its sources, manufacture and characteristics, as well as its uses 
in the art of founding, in such a way as will be of value and 
interest not only to the founder, but also to the moulder, melter 
and all those interested in the working or study of cast iron. 

Iron Ores. — Iron is the most abundant of all the metals of 
which we have any knowledge. It is found in combination with 
almost all the known elements, in all parts of the world. It is 
found in the blood of human beings and of animals, as well as 
in the ashes of plants. Many minerals contain it in consider- 
able quantities and in fact, there are very few of them entirely 
free from it. However, the principal source from which we 



HISTORY AND SOURCES. 3 

obtain our supply is from the oxides and carbonates of iron or 
iron ores. These are known by various names derived from 
their different chemical constituents, and from the particular 
localities from which they are obtained, as red hematite, 
brown hematite, black band, spar ores, magnetic ores, iron py- 
rites. Lake Superior ores. Iron Mountain ores, Cornwall ores, 
etc. All these ores contain more or less iron locked up with 
oxygen in an apparently useless stone. Some of them are very 
rich in iron, while others are very poor. Some of the Iron 
Mountain ores of Missouri contain as high as 90 per cent, of 
iron, and are said to be the richest in the world. The Lake 
Superior ores are the next richest ores in this country that 
have been found in large bodies, while some of the Pennsyl- 
vania ores found in small quantities, are equally rich in iron. 
The poorest ores are the bog and surface ores, some of which 
only contain from 10 to 20 per cent, of iron. These ores were 
the principal source from which we obtained our supply of 
iron in early days, but since the increase of facilities for trans- 
portation, the richer ores are generally smelted and the poorer 
ones only when suitable for fluxing the richer ones. Besides 
these rich and large deposits of iron ore, some of greater or 
less extent have been found in almost every state of the Union, 
some of them being very rich in iron. Thus it may be said 
that our supply of iron ores is at the present time unlimited 
and apparently inexhaustible for hundreds of years to come. 
Almost every other civilized country also seems to be equally 
well provided with iron ores, and the country that is not, or has 
not the quality desired, may readily obtain a supply by im- 
porting ores of a desired quality from other localities, the same 
as we are now doing from Cuba and from the far-off Mediter- 
ranean Coast. This was not thought of by some of the old iron 
masters of this country thirty or more years ago, for in 1870, 
when the prices of pig iron went up to $45 and $50 per ton, 
they predicted that it would never again sell below these figures, 
giving as a reason that the iron ore deposits of Great Britain, at 
that time the greatest producers of iron in the world, were 



4 FOUNDRY IRONS. 

almost exhausted, and the supply of ore in this country was 
limited. Since that time pig iron has sold as low as $12 per 
ton in the district in which this prediction was made, and the 
output of pig iron in this country has increased from 1,665,179 
tons in 1870, to 25,795,471 tons in 1909, and that of Great 
Britain in a like proportion, and there still being an abundance 
of ore in sight, the founder need have no fear of having to 
close his foundry for the want of pig iron due to the exhaus- 
tion of iron ore. There is an abundance of it and iron will 
probably continue to be smelted from it as long as there is a 
demand or market for it. 

•Mixing Ores. — In the early days of blast furnace practice it 
was the custom to locate the furnace near an ore deposit and 
smelt only the ores from this deposit, or one quality of ore. 
The ore sometimes produced a foundry iron in which case it 
was frequently cast direct from the furnace into such castings 
as there was a market for in the immediate vicinity of the 
furnace. Many of the castings made in this way were cast iron 
pots for household use and from these the metal received the 
name of pot metal, by which term it is still known and desig- 
nated by many people. When the iron smelted from the ore 
was not suitable for castings, a small rolling mill was sometimes 
constructed for making the iron into wrought iron, or other 
ways of using it had to be devised. The ruins of many of these 
furnaces and small ironworks may yet be seen in different parts 
of this country. With the building of wagon roads a market 
was found for pig iron, and a product of a desired quality was 
obtained by mixing irons from different furnaces which fre- 
quently produced an iron having when remelted and cast en- 
tirely different characteristics from any of those which entered 
into the mixture. After the construction of canals and rail- 
roads which gave facilities for transporting ores, furnacemen 
began to mix ores from different ore beds with a view of ob- 
taining a desired quality of iron from their furnaces as had been 
done by mixing the iron from these ores when remelted. Prior 
to this furnaces were mostly located near ore deposits and we 



HISTORY AND SOURCES. 5 

find the ruins of them in the most vmexpected places, and 
wonder what ever possessed the man to build a furnace in such 
a place. But probably the builders of these furnaces would be 
as much surprised as we are if they were to return and find 
furnaces, as they now are, at a distance of hundreds of miles 
from the beds from which they receive their supply of ore. 
For the production of iron of a desired quality the ores were 
mixed in different proportions and the resulting iron was tested 
for the purpose for which it was to be used. By varying the 
proportions of the different ores smelted, furnacemen were able 
to produce a foundry, mill, or steel iron. But the quality of ore 
from the same mine or district varied and, with the same mix- 
ture or proportion of various ores, a furnace frequently prod- 
uced an entirely different quality of iron from that which 
it had been turning out without it showing any indication 
of the changes that had been effected in its quality. This 
caused a great deal of uncertainty as to the quality of an iron, 
and furnacemen that were making a first class foundry iron with 
a high reputation would frequently find piles of their irons con- 
demned in foundry yards and the high reputation of this prod- 
uct gone. To overcome this difficulty resort was had to vary- 
ing the mixture of ores and testing the iron by having it melted 
in foundries and run into work to be cast. This did not always 
prove satisfactory and many furnacemen producing a foundry 
iron with a high reputation and on the road to fortune were 
ruined by these changes in the quality of iron, and the mak- 
ing of foundry irons, while far more profitable than that of mill 
irons, was regarded by many furnacemen as a lottery in which 
they did not care to take any chance. This uncertainty in the 
quality of foundry iron and the desire of steel manufacturers for 
iron of a special quality led to an investigation as to its causes 
and the employment of chemists to determine the quality of 
iron, and this led to determining the property of ores from 
which the iron was made. This was done by analysis of the 
ores and iron and has resulted in a system of analysis of ores 
that indicates accurately the quality or characteristics of iron 



6 FOUNDRY IRONS. 

that may be obtained from them when properly smelted. But 
ores are not always properly smelted in furnaces owing to the 
variation in the quality of fuel and bad working of the furnace, 
and the quality of iron indicated by analysis of the ores is not 
always obtained from them. This difficulty is overcome by a 
system of analysis of the iron which indicates accurately the 
characteristics of an iron and kind of casting it may be used 
for when remelted. But here again the iron is liable to change 
from poor fuel and bad melting and while foundrymen are more 
certain as to its quality they cannot be absolutely sure of ob- 
taining the desired quality in their castings. 

Blast Furnaces. — It is not our purpose to describe in detail 
the construction or management of a blast furnace, but only to 
give such a description of it as will enable the founder to com- 
prehend what kind of a furnace it is, and to more fully under- 
stand the terms or names by which the various foundry irons are 
designated. 

Blast furnaces are constructed upon the same general princi- 
ple as the cupola furnace, although much larger. They are 
cylindrical in shape, have an opening at the top through which 
they are filled with fuel, ores, flux, etc., for smelting, and are 
supplied with air for the combustion of the fuel and smelting 
by a blast forced through tuyeres placed near the bottom. Iron 
is drawn from the furnace at the bottom through a tap hole, 
and slag is drawn off at a point just below the tuyeres upon the 
same plan as that of a cupola in long heats or continuous melting. 

They are designated hot blast, and cold blast furnaces ac- 
cording to the temperature of the blast when forced into them. 
Those supplied with a blast of the normal temperature of the 
atmosphere are called cold blast furnaces, and iron from them, 
cold blast iron. Those supplied with a blast heated to a tem- 
perature of 300° to 500° F. before entering them, are known as 
hot blast furnaces, and iron from them Jiot blast iron. The cold 
blast furnaces all use charcoal fuel for smelting the ores, and 
iron from them is designated cold blast charcoal iron or cold 
blast iron. Charcoal is also used as fuel in a furnace with a 



HISTORY AND SOURCES. 7 

hot blast. The iron from these furnaces is called hot blast 
charcoal iron to distinguish it from the cold blast iron. A warm 
blast charcoal iron intended to take the place of cold blast iron 
has also been made, but this does not appear to have come into 
general use, or to have been placed upon the market under this 
name. Iron from furnaces using anthracite coal as fuel is 
designated atithracite iron ; that from furnaces using coke as 
fuel is known as coke or bittiniinons iron ; that from furnaces 
using a mixed fuel or charcoal and coke, as charcoal and coke 
iron, and that from furnaces using anthracite coal and coke fuel, 
as anthracite coke iroji. 

The blast furnaces of this country in early days were all cold 
blast charcoal furnaces, some of which did not produce more 
than five tons of iron in twenty-four hours, and a ten to twelve 
ton furnace was considered a large one. Later on, this class of 
furnace was to some extent enlarged, and with the production 
of the hot blast their output of iron was increased, but the 
charcoal furnaces are still small ones in comparison with the 
anthracite and coke furnaces. This is due to the fact that char- 
coal does not carry as heavy a burden of ore as the harder 
fuels. With the disappearance of forests, the source from 
which charcoal is obtained, and the development of the coun- 
try, the number of charcoal furnaces has gradually decreased 
until the output of charcoal iron is very limited, and this will 
probably be still further decreased from year to year until the 
industry becomes extinct. 

After the discovery of anthracite coal, in Pennsylvania in 
1808, and the opening of mines in 1820, many anthracite fur- 
naces were constructed and operated. They were of a larger 
type than the charcoal furnaces, and their output of iron 
greater, but in some respects inferior to both the cold and hot 
blast charcoal iron. However, for many purposes, the product 
was considered a good iron, and soon came into general use as 
a foundry iron. These furnaces were principally located in the 
anthracite coal fields or convenient to ore beds in Eastern Penn- 
sylvania, New Jersey, Maryland and New York, and were the 



8 FOUNDRY IRONS. 

source from which these sections of the country, as well as the 
New England States, for many years derived their principal 
supply of foundry irons. In these districts this iron almost 
entirely replaced the charcoal irons for foundry use, but in its 
turn has been compelled to give way to coke iron so that the 
output of it has been gradually decreasing until at the present 
time it is small compared with that of years ago, and will prob- 
ably be still further decreased, as many of the anthracite fur- 
naces are adopting coke fuel exclusively, while others are using 
a mixed fuel of coal and coke. The coke furnaces when first 
constructed were small ones, a twenty-four ton furnace being 
considered a large one, and owing to the poor quality of coal 
used for coking and lack of knowledge in coke-making, the 
iron produced by them was of a very inferior quality as a 
foundry iron, and was principally used as a mill iron in the 
manufacture of wrought iron. But with the discovery of a 
good quality of coal for coking, and advance in the manufac- 
ture of coke, the quality of iron became better, furnaces were 
gradually enlarged and improved so that this iron has now be- 
come the leading product, and the furnaces the largest in the 
country, some of them being capable of producing 500 tons 
of iron in 24 hours. 

Coke iron takes up in smelting many impurities from the 
coke, but in the manufacture of wrought iron, a commercially 
pure iron, these impurities are removed in the puddling process, 
and in the manufacture of steel in the converter or furnace, so 
that for the production of wrought iron and steel, coke-smelted 
iron answers the purpose equally as well as a charcoal-smelted 
iron, but as a foundry iron it is far inferior to the latter. 

Improvement of Foundry Iron. — With the introduction of 
foundry chemistry, it was hoped that the quality of foundry iron 
would be improved at least to the extent of giving to the founder 
a material having all the fine characteristics of the cold and hot 
blast charcoal irons of years ago. But in this chemistry has 
completely failed, and the founder is compelled to get along 
with the inferior foundry iron of to-day, while the chemist 



HISTORY AND SOURCES. 9 

is only a manipulator of these irons, and the field is still open 
for improvement of them. 

This field seems in a fair way to be covered in the near future 
and a better iron will very likely be produced at the blast fur- 
nace by the improvement in the quality of coke as a smelting 
fuel. So great an improvement has in the past few years been 
made in the coking process of foundry coke that hundreds of 
.the old style beehive coke ovens in the great Connellsville coke 
region, that formerly supplied the foundries with more than 
three-fourths of their coke, are now grown over with grass and 
weeds, and as one travels from Pittsburg to Altoona, over the 
Pennsylvania railroad, not one of the many coke ovens is seen 
to be in operation. This celebrated coke has been almost en- 
tirely replaced in the West by the Solvay Process By-product 
Coke, and to a large extent in the East by this and other coke. 
The reason for this is that the by-product coke is free from sul- 
phur and other impurities injurious to iron, and higher in car- 
bon, and gives better results in melting than Connellsville coke. 
It has not been used to any great extent in blast furnaces, ow- 
ing no doubt to the limited supply, but it is only a question of 
time when the great Connellsville coke region will seek to re- 
gain its lost prestige in the coke business by the adoption of 
by-product ovens or even better ones, and an improved quality 
of coke be produced in abundance for both blast furnaces and 
foundries. The improvement in blast furnace smelting fuel is 
what is more than anything else required for the improvement 
of foundry irons, for the fuel used in smelting ores imparts to 
the resulting iron certain desirable or undesirable characteristics 
for foundry use, as illustrated in a charcoal and coke smelted 
iron, and the nearer a coke can be brought to the pure carbon 
standard of charcoal the better the foundry iron smelted by it 
will be. What is desired in a coke smelting fuel is the elimina- 
tion of sulphur and silicon, for these two elements are detri- 
mental to iron in any proportion. Sulphur hardens and weak- 
ens iron, while silicon softens and weakens it. This weakening 
effect of silicon is due to its presence in the iron and to the 



lO FOUNDRY IRONS. 

flaky condition in which it places carbon in it, the carbon begin 
thereby prevented from entering into combination with the iron 
and producing a soft, strong metal as in a charcoal-smelted pro- 
duct, the fuel used for smelting the latter being almost free 
from silicon. Carbon is the true controlling element in cast 
iron as well as in steel, and all impurities in a smelting fuel that 
tend to destroy this control are detrimental to iron as a foundry 
iron, and the sooner this fact is recognized by makers of foun- 
dry iron, and a better smelting fuel provided, the sooner there 
will be an improvement in these irons. 

As a foundry iron coke-smelted iron is the most complicated 
body known with which man has to deal on a large scale, for 
in it may occur not only many of the elements or substances 
found in combination with the iron in the ores from which it is 
smelted, but also impurities taken up by the iron from the 
smelting fuel. These give to it such varied characteristics, that 
it has baffled the experts of the various Foundrymen's Associa- 
tions in establishing a standard analysis for the sale and purchase 
of foundry iron. Their first standard proved a failure and their 
second one amounts to this, — All foundry irons are good irons, 
if the founder and chemist know how to work them. The same 
is the case with analysis for mixtures, and an analysis for a mix- 
ture of iron that gives a satisfactory iron in one foundry, is of 
no use with a different brand of iron in the mixture for another 
foundry making the same line of work. It is not the fault of 
chemistry that a satisfactory standard of analysis for pig and 
mixtures has not been established, but it is due to the wide 
variation and the characteristics of this iron when made from 
different ores and smelted with different qualities of coke. 

With the wide variation in the characteristics of this iron 
there seems at present to be no probability of a solution of these 
problems. Probably the only way that they will ever be solved 
is to go to the fountain head and improve the quality of coke 
iron at the blast furnace. 

Analysis of Connelsvillc Coke. — This coke is all made in 
beehive ovens and from coal mined over a large area, all of the 



HISTORY AND SOURCES. I I 



mines however not producing a good coking coal, which ac- 
counts for the wide variation in analysis. 







Best Worst 


Average 


Good Connellsville Coke 


Moisture 


From 


1.50 to 3.50 




2.50 


Volatile Matter 


" 


0.50 " 1.50 




1. 00 


Fixed Carbon 


" 


89.00 " 83.00 




8600 


Ash 


" 


9.00 " 12.00 




10.00 


Sulphur 


i( 


0.70 " 1.40 




0.90 



The sulphur is weighed in the ash, hence the totals run that, 
much over 100 per cent, if the sulphur is added extra again. 
Analyses of Other Coke. — The following very interesting re- 
port on the coke industry as affecting the foundry and analysis 
of various cokes was recently prepared by Doctor Richard 
Moldenke for the United States Bureau of Mines, and published 
by them in Bulletin 3. The Doctor says in other parts of the 
report, that many coke tests have shown conclusively that much 
can be done to improve a coke by adapting the process of mak- 
ing it to the requirements. This being the case it would appear 
as though the quality of the product of a furnace exclusively 
making foundry iron could readily be improved by a proper 
coking process and a better iron turned out than is now the 
case with the use, as is probably done, of the lower grades of 
coke shown in the following analyses ; for the best coke goes to 
the foundries at a higher price than furnacemen are willing to 
pay. 

COKE DISTRICTS OF THE UNITED STATES 

General Statement. — Fortunately for the foundry industry it 
is possible in practically all the important centers of the industry 
to get good cokes, at reasonable prices through competitive 
rates, from the several coal fields. The foundryman, however, 
who is so placed that he can get, for example, a Clinch Valley 
coke cheaply, but insists upon having Connellsville coke at a 
dollar or two higher, incurs a direct and avoidable loss. 

Coal-washing methods have now progressed so far that it is 
possible to make very creditable foundry coke out of what was 



12 FOUNDRY IRONS. 

formerly considered almost too poor material for the blast fur- 
nace. Hence, if the producers give proper attention to the 
wants of the foundry, and the users of coke take into account 
the differences in its structure and composition, with existing 
facilities for shipment, there should be little trouble in the 
marketing of coke from any part of the country. It will be 
well, therefore, to describe briefly the coking districts of the 
country and point out some of the characteristics of the coals 
to be found in each. 

Coal from five of the seven great fields of the country is used 
for the manufacture of coke. These fields are the Appalachian 
field, embracing Pennsylvania, Virginia, West Virginia, Ohio, 
Tennessee, Georgia, Alabama, and eastern Kentucky ; the east- 
ern interior field, in Illinois, Indiana, and western Kentucky ; 
the western interior field, in Iowa, Kansas, Missouri, Nebraska, 
Arkansas, Oklahoma, and Texas; the Rocky Mountain field, in 
Colorado, Montana, Wyoming, Utah, and New Mexico ; and the 
Pacific coast field, in Washington. 

DESCRIPTION BY STATES. 
Alabama. — Alabama is one of the large producers of coke 
and has an advantage in home markets. Its coal is rather high 
in impurities, and nearly all the slack and more than half the 
run-of-mine coal used for coking is previously washed. Prob- 
ably the chief cause of objection to Alabama coke is the rather 
high sulphur content, which is injurious for stove castings and 
similar articles. Otherwise the coke of Alabama is used satis- 
factorily for the foundry. Alabama coke has about the follow- 
ing composition : 

Average Composition of Alabama Coke. 

From run -of- From washed 

mine coal. slack. 

Moisture 1.34 0.75 

Volatile matter 1.03 .75 

Fixed carbon 83.35 86.00 

Ash 14.28 11.50 

Sulphur 1.30 .90 



HISTORY AND SOURCES. I 3 

The analyses show up better for coke made from washed 
coal. 

Colorado. — Practically all coal from Colorado used for coke 
purposes is washed. Average analysis is about as follows: 

Average Analysis of Colorado Coke. 

Moisture c.44 

Volatile matter 1.31 

Fixed carbon 82.18 

Ash . 16.07 

Sulphur .44 

The coke should be improved with respect to its high ash by 
better development of the washery practice. 

Georgia. — Very little coke is made in Georgia, but that little 
is good. The industry is confined to the extreme northwestern 
corner, in Dade County; "Durham" coke is known, in the 
market which it reaches, as a good low-sulphur foundry coke, 
easily operated. 

Illinois. — In Illinois much foundry coke is made in by-pro- 
duct ovens from coals drawn from West Virginia. This coke 
has become standard for foundry practice in northern Illinois 
and tributary regions. The Illinois coal itself gives a rather 
poor coke even when washed, though doubtless it can be used 
to advantage by mixing with other coal possessing better coking 
qualities. An analysis of a coke made from a washed Illinois 
coal is as follows : 

Analysis of a Coke made from a Washed Illinois Coal. 

Moisture 2.78 

Volatile matter 74 

Fixed carbon 83.35 

Ash 13-13 

Sulphur 2.49 

In spite of its quality this coke has its uses, though probably 
one would do well to keep clear of it for ordinary foundry work. 
Foundry men will recognize in the above analysis a material 
much like that which they sometimes get during coke famines. 



14 FOUNDRY IRONS. 

Kentucky. — Kentucky draws its supplies of coal from two of 
the great coal fields. Most of the coke is made in the western 
part. The analysis of Kentucky coke shows normal compon- 
ents except the sulphur, which runs above i percent, and some- 
times nearly to 2 per cent. The sulphur in the coal is chiefly 
in the form of pyrite, much of which is eliminated by washing. 

New Mexieo. — New Mexico is becoming an important factor 
in the coke production of the West, as one sees on visiting its 
coal regions. The coal is so dirty, however, that for coking 
purposes it must be washed, and when it is so treated some 
analyses still show over lo per cent, of ash. The sulphur con- 
tent is rather low, being between 0.60 and 0.70 per cent. 

The great coke plant at Dawson, N. Mex., is interesting. 
The gases from the modified beehive ovens are used for raising 
steam for the plant, but the other by-products are lost. 

Ohio. — Ohio is coming up as a coke-producing State, though 
not so rapidly as it should, probably on account of the prox- 
imit}' of the Pennsylvania fields. Many of the coals have to be 
washed, and the sulphur and ash are generally a little high. 

Pennsylvania. — Pennsylvania is, of course, the banner State 
for coke. Coke is made in ten districts that are geographically 
distinct. The amount of slack that is washed before coking is 
considerable, but not so large as in other coal fields. Nearly 
all of the coal mined in the Connellsville district is used for 
coke making, and most of the coal so used is unwashed run-of- 
mine. As detailed statements of the statistics can be found in 
the volumes of Mineral Resources annually issued by the United 
States Geological Survey, it will suffice here to give the range 
in composition. 

Range of Composition of Pennsylvania Cokes. 

MoisUire 0.23 to 0.91 

Volatile matter 2910 2. 26 

Fixed carbon 92.53 to 80.84 

Ash 6.95 to 15.99 

.Sulphur 81 to 1.87 



HISTORY AND SOURCES. I 5 

The upper limits for ash, sulphur, and volatile matter denote 
nearly extreme cases either of imperfectly made coke or of 
coke made from coal that is not generally used for the purpose. 
As the foundryman is liable to have such coke sent him, it is 
included in the statement. 

Tennessee. — The bulk of the coal used to make coke in 
Tennessee is washed. In fact, all the slack is so treated before 
coking. Washing is necessary on account of the bone and the 
occasionally high sulphur. The coke analyses, which reflect 
these properties, are as follows : 

Range of Composition of Tennessee Cokes. 

Moisture 0.22 to 1.67 

Volatile matter 1 1 to 1.60 

Fixed carbon 92.4410 76.87 

Ash 7-23 to 19.86 

Sulphur 61 to 2.45 

This statem.ent shows plainly the necessity for washing, but 
also the fact that very good coke is to be had. 

Virginia. — The southwestern portion of Virginia is rapidly 
becoming an important coke center. The coalsare high grade, 
producing a coke comparable with those from the Flat Top and 
New River districts of West Virginia. The range of the fol- 
lowing analyses indicates what excellent material the State pro- 
duces : 

Range of Composition of Virginia Cokes. 

Moisture 0.16 to 1.52 

Volatile matter Soto 1.67 

Fixed carbon 93.24 to 88.52 

Ash 5.80 to 8.29 

Sulphur 42 to 1.02 

Washington. — The coke industry of Washington, though not 
large, is important, not so much for its quality as for the fact 
that metallurgical coke is made at all on the Pacific coast. The 
coal for coke making is all washed. The importance of this 
treatment is shown by the following analysis of a Washington 
coke the coal for which had not been washed. 



1 6 FOUNDRY IRONS. 

Composition of a Washington Coke from Unwashed Coal. 

Moisture 1.02 

Volatile matter 2.10 

Fixed carbon 77-53 

Ash . . 19.35 

Sulphur .44 

Everything in this coke will pass except the ash and the 
volatile matter, the first of which can be reduced by washing 
and the second by suitable changes in the coking process. 

IVi'st Virginia. — West Virginia is the second largest pro- 
ducer of coke in the country. The quality of the coal of this 
State is shown by the fact that the greater part of its coke is 
made from slack, but little of which has to be washed. Hence 
the following range of analyses is interesting : 

Range of Composition of West Virginia Cokes. 

Moisture 0.07 to 0.60 

Volatile matter 46 to 2.35 

Fixed carbon 95-47 to 84.09 

Ash 4.00 to 12.96 

.Sulphur ... .53 to 2. 26 

Value of a Standard Composition. — It may be useful to give 
a desirable composition for foundry coke, so that a foundry- 
man can compare it with the analyses given above for the sev- 
eral States and with the coke that he purchases. This function 
really should be performed by a standard specification, and the 
fixing of such a standard, it is hoped, will some day be carried 
out in a manner acceptable to all interests concerned. The 
following composition, however, would be considered excellent 
— better, in fact, than is actually required : 

Desirable Composition for Foundry Coke. 

Moisture 0.50 

Volatile matter .75 

Fixed carbon 89.75 

.\sh - 9.00 

Sulphur 70 

Solvay Coke. — This is a retort oven coke made in Solvay 



HISTORY AND SOURCES. 1 7 

ovens located at Syracuse, N. Y. ; Dunbar, Lebanon and Steel- 
ton, Pa. ; Wheeling, W. Va. ; Ensley and Tuscaloosa, Ala. ; 
Chicago, 111. ; Milwaukee, Wis., and Detroit, Mich. 

This coke is made under the patents of the Semet-Solvay 
Company but the quality varies considerably at different ovens, 
and even at the same ovens, due to different kinds and mixtures 
of coals used. The ooke niade at the Detroit ovens is of the 
very highest quality and is made from West Virginia coals 
mixed in such proportions as to give a coke having a structure 
best suited to the different purposes for which it is to be used. 

Coals low in sulphur, phosphorus and ash are selected from 
mines known to give a coke of a structure most satisfactory to 
the consumer. The coal is most carefully prepared in mining 
and again at Detroit any remaining impurities in the form of 
sulphur balls, bone and slate are eliminated in the process of 
pulverizing. Mixed coals are pulverized so that 80 to 90 per 
cent, passes a ^-inch screen in order to give uniform coke struc- 
ture, various coals being mixed in any desired proportion in 
order to give different kinds of coke suited to any particular 
use. The pulverized coal remains in the retort approximately 
18 hours before the coke is pushed. 

By selecting varying mixtures of coal a coke can be made, as 
at Detroit, to bear a heavier burden than Connellsville or any 
other coke made in beehive ovens. The burden-bearing qual- 
ity of coke varies of course at different Solvay ovens according 
to the character and proportions of the coal used. Cokes less 
dense and requiring less blast can be made equally well in these 
ovens. The standard here is 75 per cent, for shatter test. 
There is no coke made anywhere in the United States to our 
knowledge, except coke made at Chicago in similar ovens, that 
has as low a uniform content of sulphur and ash as does De- 
troit Solvay coke. The average melting ratio in this coke is 
one in nine on short melts, but on continuous pouring it runs as 
high as one to twelve. Its very high content of carbon makes 
it a rapid melting coke and under a very low blast, Detroit 
Solvay coke requires approximately 200 cubic feet of air per 



i8 



FOUNDRY IRONS. 



pound of coke to combust it. This is a practical formula and 
with 9-0Z. blast the very best results can be secured with this 
coke. Much less of it may be used in the bed, and consider- 
ably less in the charges. 

This coke is sold as a specialty and therefore obtains a much 
higher price than other cokes. In the Detroit market there is a 
difference of approximately 75 cents per ton between general 
coke prices and Detroit Solvay. 



Average Monthly Analyses of Detroit Solvay 


Coke Duri 


NG 1907, 19 


d8, I 






AND I9IO. 








Month, 


Moisture. 


Volatile Matter. Fixed Carbon. 


Ash. Sulphu 


1907- 












January . . 


.123 


1.27 


88.15 


10.44 


744 


February . . 


.121 


1-35 


88.46 


10.28 


642 


March . . . 


.14 


1. 15 


87-77 


10.58 


611 


April .... 


•13 


1.23 


88.33 


10.34 


703 


May .... 


.14 


1.68 


88.09 


9.66 


641 


June .... 


.30 


1.88 


87.49 


9.99 


702 


July .... 


.18 


1-33 


89.33 


9.15 


684 


August . - 


.242 


1. 14 


90.11 


8.60 


685 


September . 


.27 


1. 17 


89.51 


S.97 


787 


October . . 


•175 


1.58 


88.79 


9-43 


807 


November . 


.11 


2.28 


87.92 


10.86 


772 


December . 


.09 


2.63 


88.87 


9.28 


887 


igo8. 












January . . 


.116 


2.44 


86.86 


10.58 


•723 


February . . 


.124 


1.90 


88.90 


9.07 


.649 


March . . . 


.09 


1.79 


88.32 


9-53 


.689 


April .... 


.104 


2.07 


88.40 


9-36 


.683 


May . . . • 


.14 


2.05 


88.28 


9.76 


-707 


June . 


.19 


1.66 


87.92 


10.29 


.710 


July. . . . 


■15 


1.53 


88.98 


q.42 


.701 


August . . - 


.10 


1.8s 


88.02 


10.00 


.694 


September . 


.09 


2.60 


89.10 


8.90 


-705 


October . . 


.11 


2.62 


88.30 


9.48 


-713 


November . 


.c6 


2.50 


88.90 


9.00 


.736 


December . 


.05 


2.32 


89.04 


8.63 


.704 


igog. 












January . . 


.05 


2.41 


89.16 


8.36 


.660 


February . . 


.03 


2.41 


89.82 


7.78 


.658 


March . . . 


.03 


2.20 


89-73 


7-99 


.629 


April .... 


.06 


2.02 


90.02 


7.92 


.648 



HISTORY AND SOURCES. 



19 



May . . . 


. . .04 


June . 


■ • -05 


July . . . 


. . .04 


August . 


.05 


September 


.05 


October . 


. . .04 


November 


. . .04 


December 


. . .04 


igio. 




January . . 


• • .03 


February . 


. . .05 


March . . 


. . .05 


April . . . 


. •. — 


May . . . 


— 


June . . . 


. . — 


July . . . 


. . — 


August . . 


. . — 


September 


. . — 


October . 


. . — 



1.79 
1.94 
1.72 

1.83 

1.79 

1.20 

•83 

1.04 

.92 

.98 

.90 

•94 

.84 

•95 
1.07 
1.48 
1.32 
1. 01 



89.60 


8.60 


•693 


89.38 


8.66 


.701 


90.32 


7^95 


•639 


89.80 


8.38 


• 643 


90.45 


8.38 


• 643 


91.21 


7-51 


.584 


91.85 


7-30 


.624 


90.11 


8.30 


.624 


90.23 


8.25 


.607 


91.48 


7.46 


.619 


90.30 


7-33 


•571 


91.58 


7^49 


.644 


91^34 


7.82 


.647 


90.61 


8.13 


.684 


90.55 


8.38 


.664 


90.07 


8.48 


.656 


90.28 


8.80 


.685 


90.48 


8.58 


.690 



CHAPTER II. 
Pig Irons and Fracture Grading Pig and Scrap Irons. 

Classification of Pig Irons. — Irons are designated by the 
fuel used in smelting the ores, thus : An iron smelted from its 
ores with charcoal and a cold-blast is called cold-blast charcoal 
iron ; that smelted with charcoal and a hot blast, hot-blast char- 
coal iron; iron smelted with coke, coke iron, and that smelted 
with anthracite, anthracite iron. All coke and anthracite furnaces 
are hot-blast furnaces, and the iron from them hot-blast iron. 

Charcoal Irons. — The charcoal irons, cold and hot blast, are 
comparatively free from the impurities found in coke and an- 
thracite irons, imparted to them from the fuel with which they 
are smelted, and present the characteristics of greater strength 
than either of these latter products. Charcoal irons are cast into 
long slender pigs, with a V-shaped groove in them on each side 
to facilitate breaking the pig into four pieces. The pigs are 
broken with difficulty, even when grooved in this manner, 
and a two-handled sledge, weighing from 20 to 30 pounds, 
handled by two men, is frequently required to break them. 
When broken, the fracture presents a rough, torn appearance, 
with a sharp-pointed crystal that jags the fingers when pressed 
upon them. They are graded Nos. i, 2, 3 and 4. The No. i 
is a soft iron; No. 2 a grade harder; No. 3 a mottled iron, and 
No. 4 a white iron. 

Cold-blast iron was the first iron ever made in this country, 
and was used in the manufacture of all kinds of castings, even 
for stove plate, which was not made so thin many years ago as 
at the present time. The No. i is high in combined carbon, 
and its tendency to chill when cast into light work is so great 
that it runs white on thin edges, and at any great distance from 

(20) 



PIG IRONS AND FRACTURE GRADING PIG. 2 1 

the gate, in light castings. The writer, when visiting an old 
foundry in Maryland at which stoves were made from this iron, 
many years ago, learned that only the softest No. i pig had 
been used in their manufacture, and that the gates and scrap 
from the work were not remelted, but were thrown into the 
dump, and only pig melted to insure soft castings. A dump 
was pointed out that was said to contain many tons of gates and 
scrap from this foundry. 

The cold-blast iron was used in the manufacture of gear 
wheels, cranks, and all parts of machinery requiring great 
strength, and before the introduction of the steel hammer in- 
to rolling mills, and the age of steel, was the iron exclusively 
used in making large shafts for steam boats, mills, etc. 

Many amusing stories are told by old foundrymen about 
casting these shafts. One recalled to mind is the casting of 
shafts on end and making them double the length required, 
that the pressure of iron in the upper end of the mold might 
make the iron in the lower end more dense or close, only the 
lower end being used for the finished shaft. This is said to 
have been a common practice in foundries having a high repu- 
tation for good shafts. The founders do not appear to have 
known that a close iron might have been obtained by using the 
lower grades of pig, or mixing the lower with the higher grades, 
and casting the shaft of its proper length. All the iron cannon 
used in the War of the Rebellion in this country, 1861-65 , 
were made of this iron ; hundreds of them were cast at the 
foundry of the Fort Pitt Works, Pittsburg, Pa., and the writer 
saw many of them when being finished at the lathe at these 
works. The iron cut like wrought iron, and many turnings from 
20 to 30 feet long, were hung up around the lathe room to 
show its quality. 

This iron, owing to its high price and chilling tendency in 
light work, is at the present time only used by founders for 
special work, such as malleable iron, car wheels, cylinders, etc. 
In malleables it gives a stronger and smoother iron than any 
other, and, in fact, is the only material from which first-class 



22 FOUNDRY IRONS. 

malleable iron can be produced. In car wheels it makes a strong 
wheel, and gives a chill of any desired depth when the different 
grades of it are properly mixed. 

In cylinders it makes a strong, clean, close iron, free from 
grit, that polishes like steel, and does not wear rapidly or cut 
the piston head or packing ring. 

For car wheels and cylinders, it may be mixed, with coke or 
anthracite irons, and has been used to some extent in this way, 
and good results obtained. But it must be remembered that 
the characteristics of a charcoal iron decrease in proportion to 
the amount of these irons that are added to it in a mixture, and 
its good qualities may be entirely lost if too large a percentage 
of other iron is used. 

No rule can be given for mixing, as the percentage must nec- 
essarily vary with the quality of iron used and the resulting 
quality desired. 

Attempts have been made to produce by chemical analysis 
an iron from coke or anthracite irons having the characteristics 
of a cold-blast charcoal iron, and some success is said to have 
been met with in malleable iron and car-wheel works. But 
oleomargarine does not possess all the qualities of a good 
butter, and the imitation cold-blast charcoal iron will no doubt 
be found to be deficient in some of the characteristics of the 
genuine article. 

Hot-blast Charcoal Irojt. — Hot-blast charcoal iron presents 
all the characteristics of th,e cold-blast except its chilling ten- 
dency, which is lessened to a considerable extent by the 
reduced amount or per cent, of combined carbon and increased 
per cent, of graphite carbon contained in the iron. 

A deep chill cannot be obtained from the No. i, but a chill 
of any desired depth may be obtained from a mixture of the 
lower grades. This mixture, however, does not give a chilling 
iron equal .to the cold-blast for car wheels. 

The Nos. I and 2, when mixed in proper proportions, run 
very fluid and soft in light castings, such as stove plate, hollow- 
ware, bench work, pulley rims, etc., and they are the very best 
foundry irons for light castings requiring softness and strength. 



PIG IRONS AND FRACTURE GRADING PIG. 23 

No other iron than this was for many years used for this kind 
of castings, and even after the introduction of coke and anthra- 
cite irons, at a very much reduced price compared with that of 
charcoal iron, was for years worked by many foundrymen, and 
is still used exclusively by some of the old founders in localities 
where it can be procured at a moderate advance over the other 
irons. 

Some'of the best known and most famous brands of this iron 
were those of the Hanging Rock region, a mountainous district, 
on the Ohio River, in the vicinity of the town of Hanging Rock, 
Ohio. The mountains or hills in this vicinity furnished wood 
for charcoal for many small furnaces that for many years sup- 
plied the entire Ohio Valley from Pittsburg to the Mississippi 
River with foundry iron. Some of these furnaces are still in 
blast, but most of them have been abandoned, owing to the 
scarcity of w^ood, and the production of this iron has also been 
much reduced in other localities for the same reason. 

One of the tricks of founders after the introduction of coke 
and anthracite irons was to keep a pile of the charcoal iron, in 
the yard to show customers the quality of iron used in their 
castings. When a customer desired a very strong iron in his 
castings, he was taken into the yard and a pig of this iron 
broken after numerous blows with a heavy sledge. This test 
generally satisfied the customer, who believed he was getting 
an extra quality of iron, while the pig broken was likely the 
only one that went into many tons of his castings, the latter 
being made from the cheaper grades of iron. 

Coke Iron. — This is probably the best known of all the foundry 
irons, for it is used in a large majority of the foundries of this 
country making a general line of castings such as stove plate, 
hollowware, bench work, light and heavy machinery castings, 

etc. 

The characteristics of this iron vary to some extent, owing 
to the quality of the ore from which it is smelted. That made 
from some of the Lake Superior ores is very strong. The No. i 
presents a sharp-pointed crystal in the fresh fracture, runs soft 



24 FOUNDRY IRONS. 

and strong in moderately heavy castings, but very hard in stove 
plate and other light castings. That made from some of the 
southern ores is very weak, the No. i presenting a dull flat 
crystal in the fresh fracture, and running very soft in light as 
well as heavy castings. The best iron for light castings is that 
having these two characteristics in combination, and such a pro- 
duct is turned out by furnacemen making a specialty of foun- 
dry irons from a mixture of different ores. 

These characteristics should be remembered when ordering 
irons, and one suitable for the work to be cast be selected. 

Coke iron was first graded No. i, No. 2 mottled, and white 
iron. Later, it was graded Nos. i, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7, with the 
addition of No. i A, No. 2 A, or No. i X or No. 2 X. This 
fine grading was designed to accurately indicate the quality of 
iron and enable the foundrymen to order exactly the quality 
best suited for the work to be cast. 

An effort is now being made by furnacemen in some local- 
ities to do away with grading by fracture, and to grade from 
chemical analysis, which is said to more accurately indicate the 
characteristics of the iron and enable the foundrymen to select 
the one exactly suited for his work. 

This grading is to a large extent based upon the per cent, of 
silicon contained in the iron. A high silicon, a soft iron. A 
low silicon, a hard iron. Silicon is placed in the iron in any 
desired per cent, by the grade of ores smelted, and irons are 
made to correspond with the numbers formerly used in grading. 
Thus, a 3 per cent, silicon iron presents similar characteristics to 
an iron formerly graded No. i ; a 2 per cent, silicon those of 
No. 2, and so on. 

Coke irons are cast into short, thick pigs, as compared with 
those of charcoal irons. These heavy pigs, which are almost 
double the thickness of the charcoal pig, are broken more 
readily than the slender grooved pigs of that iron. Even the 
strongest of the best grades in no way compares with charcoal 
pig for strength. 

The strength of the iron is indicated to some extent by the 



PIG IRONS AND FRACTURE GRADING PIG. 25 

color, as well as shape, of the crystal. A dark bluish cast in 
the fresh fracture indicates a stronger iron than alight or silvery- 
cast. The No. 2 iron runs stronger in heavy and moderately 
heavy castings than the No. i , but weaker in light castings, in 
which it is to some extent chilled by sudden cooling. 

For light castings the best results may be obtained by mix- 
ing the No. I and No. 2 in the proportions of one-half of each, 
or two-thirds of No. i and one-third of No. 2. A mixture of 
about these proportions generally makes an iron that runs 
softer and more even in light castings than all No. i . 

The No. 3 grade is seldom used, except for very heavy cast- 
ings; it is then generally mixed with the No. 2, and is em- 
ployed in the mixture for the purpose of giving strength to the 
castings. 

Anthracite Iron. — The furnaces producing this iron are prin- 
cipally located in Eastern Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Maryland 
and New York, and were the source from which these sections 
of the country derived their supply of foundry irons for many 
years. 

The furnaces were generally small ones and, with anthracite 
coal, which smelted the ores very slowly, produced but a limited 
amount of iron. After the improvements in the manufacture 
of coke, it was found that these furnaces could be made to 
produce two or three times more iron with coke fuel than with 
anthracite fuel. This, together with the decrease in the price 
of coke, as improvements were made in its manufacture, in- 
duced the anthracite furnacemen to change their furnaces to 
coke furnaces. This change has taken place to so great an ex- 
tent that very few anthracite furnaces are in existence at the 
present time. Even the anthracite furnaces in the Lehigh 
Valley, the very centre of the anthracite coal field, have 
changed to coke. The iron as a foundry iron was far superior 
to coke iron in the early stages of the manufacture of the latter; 
but with the advancement in the manufacture of coke, and con- 
sequent improvement in coke-iron, the two products presented 
very similar characteristics as foundry irons. The pigs of the 



26 FOUNDRY IRONS. 

irons are cast about the same size and shape, and it would be 
difficult, or impossible, to determine an anthracite from a coke 
iron by the fracture. The two products present a similar ap- 
pearance and, as foundry iron, are so near alike that it would be 
useless to describe anthracite iron in detail after having de- 
scribed coke iron. 

Silver Gray Iron. — Silver gray iron is a foundry iron some- 
times produced by furnaces when overheated, and has been 
called a burned iron. It never was a regular furnace product, 
but a chance product, and generally sold at a very much re- 
duced price from the regular or standard iron of the furnace. 
It was occasionally seen in foundry yards some 25 years ago, 
but was never sufficiently plentiful to come into general use. 

The writer has not seen it or learned of its being used for 
many years, and since the improvements in blast furnace prac- 
tice, it may not be made. 

The fresh fracture of this iron in the pigs was very similar 
in appearance to that of a white iron, and was only distin- 
guished from the latter by the silvery gray cast from which it 
derives its name. 

It was very soft, ran fluid, and presented many of the char- 
acteristics of high silicon iron of the present time. It was 
very weak and unsuitable for castings when melted alone, and 
was used as softener when melting the lower grades of pig or 
scrap iron. 

High Silicon Iron. — Silicon is an element that enters freely 
into combination with iron. It is found combined in large pro- 
portions with iron in its native state, and may be added to iron 
in the blast furnace. Great beds of iron ore containing this 
element in large proportions that are very accessible have 
been found in this country, and by reason of the softness and 
brittleness imparted to the ore by the silicon, it is easily mined 
and broken up, and a cheaper iron is made from it than from 
many others. 

The iron i)roduced from this ore is of an inferior quality. 
Rolling-mill men and the manufacturers of steel have no use 
for it, and it is being pushed forward as a foundry iron. 



PIG IRONS AND FRACTURE GRADING PIG. 2J 

The only requisite quality this iron possesses as a foundr)' 
iron is weight, and this quality is offset to a large extent by 
its rottenness. When cast into sash weights, or other slender 
weights, they must be handled with x;are to prevent breakage. 

Silicon in large proportions imparts to iron a peculiar grit 
that removes the edge from a finishing tool about as rapidly as 
a grind-stone. It also reduces the chilling tendency of cast 
iron, and is claimed by the advocates of silicon iron to be a 
softener ; but I think this is a mistake, and that carbon will yet 
be found to be the true softener. But this iron, as before 
stated, is being pushed forward as a foundry iron, and as the 
writer has melted many tons of it in various proportions, a few 
suggestions on melting and mixing it may be of value to foun- 
drymen. 

The proportion of silicon that may be used in a foundry iron 
without impairing its quality to any great extent varies from ^ 
to 3 per cent., according to the kind of casting the iron is to 
make; thus a mixture for heavy machine castings requiring 
great strength needs none of this iron. Light machinery cast- 
ings to be finished may require from ^ to i per cent., and stove 
plate, bench work, and other light, thin castings, from 2 to 3 per 
cent. This percentage of silicon reduces the chilling tendency 
of the iron, and prevents to a large extent hardness on thin 
edges, and at a distance from the runner or gate. 

To distribute this per cent, of silicon evenly throughout the 
castings when a high silicon iron is used in a mixture with a low 
grade of pig or scrap, requires very nice cupola practice. 

The aim must be to get the small per cent, of high silicon iron 
evenly distributed throughout the large per cent, of other irons 
when in the molten state. This can only be done by careful 
charging and tapping. 

When all pig is melted with only the foundry scrap, the high 
silicon iron should be broken in pieces that will admit of it 
being mixed with the other pig; and when charged, care should 
be taken not to place the silicon iron all together, but to dis- 
tribute it evenly throughout the other pig, so that when melted 



2S FOUNDRY IRONS. 

it may have the opportunity to mix with the other iron in its 
descent through the fuel to the bottom of the cupola, and be 
more evenly distributed in the molten mass at the bottom. The 
iron should be melted very hot and the cupola not tapped close, 
or a small tap hole should be made and a considerable body of 
iron permitted to remain in the bottom of the cupola, when a 
continuous stream is drawn. It will also be found of advantage 
to place a large ladle holding from 500 to 1,000 pounds on 
trestles in front of the cupola and pour the iron from this ladle 
into hand or other small ladles for light work. 

When melting heavy scrap or high silicon pig, the same pre- 
caution should be observed to secure a homogeneous iron. 

When melting light scrap and high silicon pig, such as that 
recommended to carry 90 per cent, of scrap, the silicon iron 
should be broken in very small pieces and mixed with the scrap 
in charging in a way that will insure the pig and scrap melting 
at the same time, and mixing as they descend, and also in the 
bottom of the cupola. 

This would not be the case if the pig were all charged on the 
fuel with the light scrap on top of it, unless the entire charge 
was melted before a tap was made. When melting this grade 
of irons the precaution should always be taken to mix the iron 
in a large ladle as well as in the cupola. 

Pig irons are now being made for foundry work that contain 
from 5^ to 3 or 4 per cent, of silicon, and foundrymen will se- 
cure a more homogenous iron for their castings by purchasing 
an iron that contains the amount of silicon said to.be necessarj^ 
for their grade of castings than by buying an iron very high in 
silicon and mixing it with one very low in silcon, or free from it. 

When castings are deficient in strength, and breakage is heavy 
in the tumbling barrels, or in the handling, the silicon should at 
once be reduced by increasing the proportion of irons low in 
silicon in the mixture. 

When in finishing work the iron leaves the tool of a lathe or 
planer like particles of half dried sand and readily crumbles 
into small particles, the silicon is too high. Such iron gener- 



pk; irons and fracture grading fig. 29 

ally takes the edge off of tools very rapidly, is difficult to finish 
smoothly, and if finished for small shafts, cuts out bearings very 
rapidly, or if finished for bearings, cuts the shaft. 

Scotch Pig. — This is the common name by which numerous 
brands of pig iron imported from Scotland are known in this 
country. 

Thirty or forty years ago this iron was extensively used as a 
foundry iron, and many founders believed they could not make 
soft castings without Scotch pig. At the present time its use 
is restricted almost entirely to seaport cities and towns, to which 
it is brought by vessels as ballast, and sold at a less price than 
American foundry irons. 

The iron is cast into short, thick pigs, the fresh fracture of 
which is of a dark bluish cast, with the large crystal called an 
open iron. It is high in graphite or free carbon, and when 
broken small flakes of graphite frequently fall from the fracture. 
The iron is deficient in strength and the large pigs are easily 
broken with the sledge. The qualities of the different brands 
of Scotch iron vary to a considerable extent, and the price 
varies from one to two dollars per ton, according to the quality 
and reputation of the brands. 

The best brands run very soft and clean in light work, and 
some years ago were the only irons used for stove plate and 
hollowware, but they have generally been replaced for this 
work by the stronger soft brands of domestic irons. 

Some of the poorer brands run soft but so kishy that it is 
difficult to make perfect castings from them, the kish collecting 
in spots on the surface of the castings, making thin spots or 
holes, and in heavy work collecting in short angles or edges, 
causing rounded and uneven corners or edges. Other brands 
run very dirty, as well as hard, and are only fit for weights or 
very common castings. 

Note. — Kish is a name given by founders to a soft, dark 
substance resembling black lead, that is forced out of a very 
soft iron when in a molten state and when cooling. In thin 
castings it runs before the iron in the mold and causes rounded 



30 FOUNDRY IRONS. 

edges or corners, similar to those made by blacking, dusted on 
too heavy, and washed before the iron. In heavy casting it 
collects on the surface in spots, and around the edges. It ad- 
heres firmly to the casting, but is soft and easily broken off, 
leaving a smooth surface. Kish is only found in very soft iron, 
in which the softness is due to graphite or free carbon, and 
comes from an excess of this element in the iron. It is not 
found in foundry irons used at the present time to the same 
extent it was in those used some years ago, and many of the 
younger founders have probably never heard the term. 

Anicrican-Scotcli Pig. — When the Scotch pig craze was at its 
height a number of furnacemen in this country, with the 
usual American inventive genius, conceived the idea of imi- 
tating Scotch pig, and a number of brands of iron were made 
and put on the market called American-Scotch pig. 

These irons, in many cases, were far superior as foundry 
irons to the genuine Scotch, and in numerous cases soon re- 
placed it in foundries making light work, for which it was 
claimed only Scotch pig could be used. 

Among the brands of American-Scotch that attained a high 
reputation were Briar Hill and Cherry Valley. The writer has 
melted many tons of these irons for light as well as heavy cast- 
ings and found them to run as soft as any brand of Scotch pig 
he ever melted, and far superior to them in cleanliness and 
strength. 

There were many other brands of American-Scotch in diff- 
erent sections of this country that attained a high reputation, 
and are still in the market as foundry irons; but as Scotch pig 
is not in demand to the extent it was some years ago, furnace- 
men have generally dropped the term American-Scotch, and 
the irons are known only by their local or furnace names. 

Pig Iron. — Iron when smelted from its ores in a blast-furnace 
is know as cast iron and when drawn from the furnace and cast 
into short bars or slabs as pig iron, which is frequently desig- 
nated as foundry pig, mill pig, and Bessemer pig, these terms in- 
dicating the purpose for which the iron is best suited. Pig 



PIG IRONS AND FRACTURE GRADING PIG. 3 1 

iron is also designated from the mold in which it is cast as sand 
pig, chill-pig and sandless pig. Since the introduction of these 
new methods of casting, the term pig, or pig iron has become 
general, and the iron is frequently ^designated, according to the 
purpose for which it is to be used or the manner of casting. 

Sajid Pig. — Probably ever since the beginning of the manu- 
facture of pig iron it has been cast in open sand moulds in the 
floor of the furnace casting house. In preparing the moulds 
perfectly level beds of sand are made, and in these the pigs are 
moulded, a sufficient distance apart, to prevent the sand between 
them from being washed or forced away by the pressure of 
molten iron, and the pigs from running together. At the end 
of each row or bed of pigs a perfectly level runner or sow pig, 
as it is called, is moulded. This sow pig is connected with the 
end of each pig, and one end of it is connected with an in- 
clined runner, constructed of sand, from the tap-hole of the 
furnace. Through this runner the iron is permitted to flow first 
to the pig bed at the greatest distance from the furnace. When 
the moulds in this bed are filled an iron gate or spade coated 
with clay is forced into the sand of the runner in such a way 
as to stop off the flow of metal, and another opening is made 
in the side of the runner by removing a shovelful of sand, 
which permits iron to flow into the sow of the next pig bed. 
When this one is filled the runner is again shut off at the next 
sow, and another opening made, and so on until all the iron in 
the furnace is cast. This mode of casting requires consider- 
able labor in preparing the moulds for each cast, and to save 
this expense and obtain an iron free from sand, a cast iron pig 
mould or chill has been devised. 

Chilled Pig. — The molds for this pig are made in a cast-iron 
plate or block of iron from six to eight inches thick, and of a 
size sufficient for four or six pigs with sow pig attached to them 
in each block. Two or more of these blocks are imbedded in 
the floor of the casting-house to form a pig bed and the moulds 
are filled from a runner in the same manner as the sand mould. 
Iron cast in the moulds is known as chilled pig, from being cast 



32 FOUNDRY IRONS. 

in iron moulds and having a slight chill on the surface that 
comes in contact with the mould. On account of the chill this 
iron never became popular with founders and has only been 
used to a very limited extent for foundry work, although the 
chill entirely disappears when the iron is remelted and no trace 
of it can be found in the castings. 

Saiidless Pig. — After the introduction of chemistry into 
blast-furnace practice, it was discovered that iron cast in sand 
and chill moulds was not of an even quality throughout the cast 
or pig. Analysis showed different qualities of iron in different 
parts of the same cast and in opposite ends of the same pig. 
This unevenness in the quality of the product was attributed to 
iron smelted from different ores not having been thoroughly 
mixed before casting. To overcome this difficulty and produce 
an even grade of iron a plan for mixing the iron before casting 
was devised. This was done by drawing the iron from the fur- 
nace into a large ladle capable of holding the cast and to mix it 
before casting. From this ladle it is poured directly into the 
pig moulds that are only about one-half the length of the ordi- 
nary sand pig. The moulds for these pigs are made of thin 
wrought iron or soft steel, so that they may be quickly heated 
by the molten metal. The chilling tendency upon the iron is 
thus far less than that of the heavy chill used in casting chilled 
pig, and to still further reduce the chilling tendency they are 
coated with a carbon deposit or silicon wash. These moulds 
are placed upon a revolving table, upon which they are brought 
under the ladle to be filled and removed, to be emptied when 
the iron has sufficiently cooled to allow of this being done. 
They have also been placed upon traveling belts or chains 
which carry them under the ladle to be filled, and to any de- 
sired distance from the furnace to be dumped in the yard or 
upon iron cars for shipment, this mode of casting being thus not 
only a labor-saving device in moulding the pigs, but also in re- 
moving the iron from the casting-house. 

Since the introduction of sandlcss pig into foundry practice 
extravagant claims have been made for its superiority over sand 



PIG IRONS AND FRACTURE GRADING PIG. 33 

and chilled pig as a foundry iron. This pig is generally cooled 
to a considerable extent by water thrown upon it and shows a 
closer iron than sand pig, and while an analysis of the iron has 
shown a more even quality throughout the pig and cast, 
this is probably due more to the even temperature at which it 
is cast and the manner of cooling it than to mixing it in a ladle 
before casting. The extravagant claims made for superiority 
of sandless pig do not appear to have been realized, for no better 
castings have been made from it than from either of the other 
pigs when properly mixed in melting. All cast iron assumes its 
normal state when melted, and the chill on chilled pig, the close- 
ness of sandless pig, all disappear when the iron is melted and 
do not appear again in it except from the cause that originally 
produced them in the pig. The manner of casting is therefore 
a matter of furnace practice and has nothing to do with the 
quality of a pig iron ; it does not change its quality any more 
than the shape of the casting and manner of casting changes 
the quality of an iron when cast in a foundry. Foundrymen 
should therefore select their irons by quality and not by the 
shape or mode of casting the pig. This may now be done by 
analysis, and an iron of a desired quality be thus obtained with 
more certainty than from the appearance of the iron. 

Fracture Grading of Pig Iron — Iron when smelted from its 
ore in blast furnaces, even when smelted from the same quality 
of ores and with the same quality of fuel, acquires different de- 
grees of hardness and softness. This is due to the temperature 
of the furnace, or, as it is termed, " the furnace is working hot 
or cold," and a furnace may produce soft iron one cast and a 
harder iron the next, or may make soft iron for some length of 
time and then very hard iron. ■ This is said to be due to the 
scaffolding or hanging up of the stock in the furnace. This un - 
evenness in the iron made it necessary to have some means of 
determining and indicating its quality before putting it upon 
the market. This is done by breaking a few pigs of each cast 
when cold, and determining its quality by the indications of the 
crystalline structure in the first break. A large crystal indi- 



34 FOUNDRY IRONS. 

cates a soft iron. This is designated No. i ; a small crystal, a 
harder iron than No. i. This is graded No. 2. A still smaller 
crystal with a white thread-like streak winding through among 
the crystals indicates a mottled iron and one with scarcely any 
perceptible crystalline structure, a white iron. Only four grades 
were made; of these Nos. i and 2 were called foundry irons, 
and the mottled and white irons, mill-irons. With the improve- 
ment in furnaces, a more accurate grading was desired and iron 
was graded up to Nos. i, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7. No. i indicated a soft 
iron, and the iron gradually grew harder until No. 7 was reached, 
which was extremely hard. In addition to this grading, the 
softer irons were sometimes graded No. i and No. i A, and 
No. 2 and No. 2 A, or No. i and No. i X, No. 2 and No. 2 X, 
which indicated that they were very soft irons suitable for very 
light castings. This mode of grading was termed fracture- 
grading, and was the only means of grading employed by fur- 
nace men for several hundred years. It as accurately indicates 
the quality of an iron, when the grader is an expert, as does 
chemical analysis, and the quality of the castings produced 
from the remelted iron is indicated by the grade or number of 
the latter. But irons melted from different ores present dif- 
ferent characteristics, and when such irons are brought together 
in remelting they do not always produce the quality indicated 
by the grade number of one or both. When founders received 
their supply of iron from one furnace or from a number of fur- 
naces using the same or about the same quality of ore, this 
mode of grading answered every purpose. But when founders 
endeavored to use in their mixtures irons made from widely dif- 
ferent ores, they frequently found the resulting product far 
below that indicated by the grade number, and only founders 
who were fracture experts were able to use such iron in their 
mixtures. These experts, however, were few and far between, 
and foundrymen did not care to take the risk of losing a heat 
of casting by using an iron the characteristics of which they were 
not familiar with. This forced furnacemen making irons in iso- 
lated districts to devise a new method of grading that, in order 



PIG IRONS AND FRACTURE GRADING PIG. .35 

to find a new market for them, would enable the founder to 
use them with a certainty of results. Recourse was had to 
chemistry, which has made it possible for the furnaceman not 
only to determine the exact characteristics of his own iron, 
but also of irons with which it might be mixed in remelting, 
and to determine to some extent the characteristics of the re- 
sultant mixture. This mode of grading has now been adopted 
by all furnaces seeking a foreign market for their iron, and to 
some extent by those having a local or home market. How- 
ever, there are many furnacemen grading by fracture, and the 
practice of placing iron upon the market by number of grading 
is so universal that a standard analysis for No. i and No. 2 
foundry irons has been established. 

Fracture Indications in Foundry Irons. — By this is meant the 
quality of iron as indicated by its appearance in the fresh break 
or fracture of the iron when cold. The term applies to all 
foundry irons, such as pig, scrap irons, castings, etc. The frac- 
ture indicates to the expert the quality of an iron, either pig 
or scrap, as accurately as analysis. But unfortunately few 
foundrymen have the faculty of becoming experts and in the 
writer's contact with hundreds of them he has never met more 
than a dozen real fracture experts. These men could read the 
quality of an iron in the fracture and indicate two or more irons 
that could be melted together to give a product of any desired 
quality, with more certainty than has yet been done by analysis 
alone. However, all practical foundrymen have more or less 
knowledge of fracture indication; in fact it would be practically 
impossible to manage a foundry without such a knowledge. 

The general indications of fracture are as follows : A large 
crystal and dark bluish color indicate a No. i soft iron ; a 
large crystal and light or silvery color, a No. i soft but weak 
iron; a smaller crystal and dark color, a No. 2 soft, strong iron, 
suitable for mixing with either of the above irons for soft light 
castings or by itself for light machinery castings ; a small crys- 
tal with a dark color, a No. 3 strong iron that will run hard in 
light castings and soft in heavy ones and is suitable for mixing 



36 FOUNDRY IRONS. 

with No. 2 for light and heavy machinery castings ; a very small 
crystal and dark color, with a thread-like white streak between 
the crystals, a No. 4 or mottled iron. This iron is only used in 
foundries in mixtures to give closeness and strength to large 
castings. An extremely small white crystal indicates a hard iron. 
This iron is used in mixture with No. 2 or No. 3 iron for cast- 
ings requiring a very close hard iron, or chilled surface. A 
silvery gray color, almost devoid of crystalline structure, indi- 
cates a soft but very weak iron. It is used in mixtures as a soft- 
ener of other irons. A large crystal and dark color, with spots 
or patches of very small crystals indicate an uneven iron. 
These spots may disappear in melting but generally cause hard 
spots in Ijght and thin castings. 

The methods of casting and cooling the pig change these 
indications to some extent, a small crystal and dark color may 
prove to be a soft iron, as is frequently the case in sandless pig, 
but a light-colored small crystal always indicates a close or 
hard iron when remelted. A sharp-pointed crystal indicates a 
strong iron regardless of the size of the crystal. 

In coke and anthracite irons the crystals are larger, more dia- 
mond-shaped and duller in all grades than in the same grade of 
charcoal iron. In the latter the crystals are sharp-pointed, 
ragged, and have the appearance of having been drawn apart 
rather than broken apart as in the coke and anthracite irons. 
This appearance always indicates a strong iron but is never seen 
in coke and anthracite irons to the same extent as in charcoal 
iron. 

The breaking of pig iron also indicates to some extent its 
characteristics. 

Pig that is difficult to break, indicates a strong iron. If a 
coke or anthracite iron it runs strong in heavy work, but gen- 
erally runs hard in light or thin castings. Pig that breaks easily, 
if soft iron, is generally high in silicon and by itself may be 
used for light work, or as a softener with a soft iron. 

Pig that breaks easily, if hard iron, is generally of a poorer 
quality that should only be used for an inferior class of cast- 
ings. 



PIG IRONS AND FRACTURE GRADING FIG. 37 

Charcoal pig whether hot or cold blast, hard or soft iron, 
is always difficult to break and presents a sharp-pointed drawn- 
out crystal except in very hard white iron. 

These points can only be determined by an experienced 
breaker, for all pig iron is hard to break by an inexperienced 
hand. 

Pig iron is now generally sold by analysis and these indi- 
cations are not of such great importance as they were when 
pig iron was sold entirely by fracture. If, however, the 
founder has no knowledge of them whatever he cannot ma- 
nipulate his irons after he has them in the foundry yard, 
and should the irons become mixed, or there be an uncer- 
tainty as to the quality of those in various piles, he would 
be liable to charge a hard iron for soft work, or soft iron 
for hard work. 

Fracture Indications in Scrap Iron. — Fracture indications 
apply to scrap as well as pig. In this iron the size of crystal 
varies with the thickness or size of castings, and does not indi- 
cate its quality to so great an extent as in pig. The principal 
indication in this iron is the color, a crystalline structure and 
dark color indicating a soft iron ; a light color a hard or close 
one, and a very small white crystal, a very hard one. 

The size or color of the crystal in burned iron, even if only 
slightly so, affords no fracture indication of the quality of the 
iron that may be obtained from it when melted. The quality 
of the product from light scrap heavily coated with rust can 
also not be determined by fracture indications unless the rust 
be removed previous to melting. 

Shape of Scrap. — The shape of scrap castings and a knowl- 
edge of the quality of iron used for different lines of them is 
the most common guide in selecting scrap. It is only when 
there is a doubt as to the quality of iron from which work is 
cast that fracture indications are looked for, because scrap gen- 
erally produces the same grade of iron when remelted as that 
from which it was cast, but a shade harder, and may be brought 
up to the original standard by the addition of soft pig, when 
remelted. 



38 FOUNDRY IRONS. 

Heavy machinery scrap is a soft strong iron for heavy work ; 
light machinery scrap, a soft strong iron for light machinery 
work; stove plate, a soft strong iron for thin castings. This 
scrap when remelted produces a much harder iron than that 
from which it was cast, and only by the addition of a large per 
cent, of softer pig, can it be used for the same line of work. 

Promiscuous scrap, the quality of iron in which is not indi- 
cated by the shape of the casting, should always be broken and 
selected for remelting by indication of fracture. 

Small scrap is always hardened to a greater extent when re- 
melting than large scrap, and requires a larger per cent, of 
softener pig than large scrap. 

Cast steel scrap when melted with cast iron has a hardening 
effect upon the latter and frequently causes hard spots in castings. 

Buriied Scrap. — Burned cast iron presents the most varied, 
as well as the most deceptive, fracture of all the irons the 
founder has to deal with. The variations are due to the extent 
to which the iron is burned, and also to the conditions under 
which it was burned. The deception is due to the changes ef- 
fected in the crystallization of the iron by frequent or pro- 
longed heating. 

In a grate bar, we may find near the center a small crystal of 
a light bluish cast, and near the ends a large crystal with a dark 
blue cast. This is due to the center having been subjected to a 
greater heat than the ends. In heavy retorts, etc., we find a 
large crystal and open iron, presenting many of the character- 
istics of fracture in a very soft No. i pig iron. And in fact, in 
all burned iron, not burned in contact with fuel, we find in the 
fracture the characteristics of a soft iron. 

The mistake commonly made by founders and melters is in 
judging this iron by the fracture, which in reality indicates 
nothing as to the quality of iron that may be melted from it. 
Grate bars are frequently broken and the center condemned 
and thrown in the dump, while the ends are melted, simply be- 
cause the fracture near the end indicates a soft iron. Pieces of 
retorts and other burned castings that should be thrown away 
are for the same reason melted. 



PIG IRONS AND FRACTURE GRADING PIG. 39 

All burned iron should be judged by the external general ap- 
pearance, and not by fracture. By general appearance is meant 
the entire casting should be considered and not certain parts of 
it, as is too frequently done. 

In burning away the surface of a grate bar near the center, 
the ends are subject to a prolonged heat, of a degree lower than 
in the center, but sufficient to destroy the iron, although none 
of it may have been burned away near the ends and the external 
appearance gives no indication of the iron having been injured. 
The same rule applies to a greater or less extent to all castings, 
parts of which show indications of having been burned. 

This principle is frequently better understood by junk dealers 
than by founders, and in sorting scrap unprincipled dealers break 
off parts of castings showing external evidence of having been 
burned, throwing it in the burned iron pile, while that showing 
no evidence of being burned is thrown in the good scrap to be 
sold to founders, who judge scrap by fracture only. Retorts, 
pipes, salt kettles, etc., are broken into plates, slabs or pieces to 
destroy their identity, and thrown in a pile to rust before being 
placed with good scrap, a few pieces to the ton, to be sold as 
good scrap. This is one of the tricks of trade that founders 
have to look out for to avoid unknowingly melting burned iron 
for their castings. 

Burned cast iron, when melted in a cupola, produces in all 
cases a hard iron. The degree of hardness depends upon the 
extent to which the iron has been burned ; from that only 
slightly burned, a hard gray or mottled iron may be obtained ; 
from that burned to a greater extent, a white iron ; and from 
that burned to a still greater extent, a very small per cent, of 
white iron, with an excessive amount of slag. These three 
grades may be found in a promiscuous lot or pile of burned 
iron, and when melted alone the product is generally a white 
iron, with a large amount of slag. The slag may boil in the 
cupola and stop melting, or may flow from the tap-hole with the 
iron, and in some cases cannot be distinguished from it until it 
has cooled to a considerable extent. 



CHAPTER III. 
Scrap Irons. 

Cast Scrap Iron. — Iron that has been cast into various shapes 
and forms which are no longer wanted for the purpose for which 
they were cast, is designated scrap-iron or cast scrap. This 
iron unHke pig iron, is not graded by fracture or analysis, but 
is classified as machinery, car wheel, stove plate, plow and plow 
point, burnt iron drillings and turnings, malleable, and promis- 
cuous scrap. This classification is designed to take the place 
of grading, and indicates the quality of iron from which the cast- 
ings were made and the grade of iron that may be found when 
remelted. It also indicates changes that have been effected in 
the iron after casting in the process of finishing, or by the use 
to which the castings had been put before becoming scrap. 

Machinery Scrap. — Machinery is cast from a good grade of 
soft, strong iron. No change is effected in the quality of the 
iron in finishing the castings, or by the use to which the latter 
are put when finished, and the same quality of iron is therefore 
found in this scrap as in the castings when first cast. While 
such are the general characteristics of machinery scrap, there are 
some exceptions, for all machinery castings are not made of 
soft iron. Gear wheels, etc., are cast from a close fine-grained 
iron and there are other lines of work, such as brick machinery, 
crushers, grinding mills, etc., parts of which are cast from a 
white or chilled iron that gives the same grade when remelted. 
The founder soon learns to designate the quality of iron in his 
scrap pile, by the shape of the castings and if there is any doubt, 
by breaking them. Close scrap is thrown aside for this line of 
work, as white or chilled iron is for another line. 

Machinery scrap is regarded as the very best grade of scrap 

(40) 



SCRAP IRONS. 41 

for general foundry castings, and sells at the highest price. In 
some cases, when very select, it sells at as high a price as the 
best brands of pig iron, because when mixed with pig it pro- 
duces a stronger and better casting for some lines than all pig, 
and is eagerly sought for by founders doing engine work, and 
other lines requiring good strong castings. 

Car Wheel Scrap. — Car wheels, like machinery are cast from 
a good grade of iron, that is not changed in finishing or by the 
use to which the wheels are put before being consigned to the 
scrap pile. This scrap being of the same quality of iron from 
which the wheels are cast, is of value in mixtures for wheels and 
is also used by founders in mixtures for castings requiring a 
close fine-grained iron, or chilled surface. Scrap wheels are 
most extensively used by car wheel founders, who are gener- 
ally required by the Railroad Companies to take a certain num- 
ber of old wheels in part payment for new ones. When placed 
upon the market, this scrap, like machinery scrap, commands a 
good price. 

Stove Plate Scrap. — This scrap is cast from an excellent grade 
of iron the chief characteristics of which are softness, fluidity, 
and strength, exposing when run into thin plates, a very large 
surface to the chilling tendency of a damp mould. The charac- 
teristics of this iron are not at all changed in finishing, but are 
radically changed by the use to which the castings are put, some 
of them being exposed to so great a degree of heat, and re- 
peated heating and cooling, as almost entirely to destroy the 
iron ; others are exposed to oxidation, and when consigned to 
the scrap pile such a large surface is exposed to oxidation or 
rust, that the quality of the iron is greatly deteriorated. We 
do not find in this scrap when remelted anywhere near the 
quality of iron from which the castings were made. Only a 
limited amount of this scrap can be used in mixtures for stove 
plate, and it is never sought for by stove-plate founders. It is 
considered an inferior quality of scrap, sells at a much lower 
price than machinery scrap, and is principally melted in mix- 
tures for an inferior class of castings. 



42 FOUNDRY IRONS. 

Plow ami Plow-point Scrap. — Plows and plow-points are gen- 
erally cast from a hard iron with a tendency to chill, but not to 
so great an extent as that of car-wheel iron. This iron is not 
at all changed by the use to which it is put, and when remelted 
the resulting product is of the same quality, only a grade harder. 
This scrap is so widely distributed that it is only classified at 
foundry centers surrounded by a large farming district. It 
commands a fair price for this kind of castings. 

Promiscuous Scrap. — In all large cities and at foundry centers 
scrap is generally handled by junk or old iron dealers, who sort 
it and prepare for market the various grades previously de- 
scribed. When the character of the scrap is not clearly indi- 
cated by the shape of the casting, or there is not sufficient of it 
to market it separately, it is thrown into a pile that is designated 
promiscuous scrap. This scrap is generally small, of an inferior 
quality, and sells at a lower price than graded scrap. It is used 
by founders for a class of castings upon which there is little fin- 
ishing to be done and in which the quality of iron is not of any 
great importance. In foundry districts where there are no junk 
or old iron dealers, scrap is bought direct from the collectors 
and is of an entirely different character. It frequently com- 
prises not only all the various grades of cast scrap, but also steel 
and wrought-iron scrap. The founder generally sorts this scrap 
and throws it into separate piles, or sorts it as he melts it, using 
the different grades in his mixtures for different classes of work. 
When only one line of castings is made at a foundry very little 
of this scrap is purchased, and when it is, the undesirable iron 
has to be thrown aside and sold again. 

Steel Casting Scrap. — Of late years the use of steel castings 
for a large variety of purposes has become so extensive that this 
scrap constitutes an important factor in the mixing of foundry 
irons. Many of the smaller pieces of it are steel malleables and 
their effect in foundry mixtures is similar to that of malleable 
scrap, producing in soft iron mixtures a hard or spotted casting, 
and for this reason should be carefully excluded from such 
mixtures. It may, however, be used to good advantage in semi- 



SCRAP IRONS. 43 

Steel mixtures, and also in heavy castings requiring strength and 
closeness. The per cent, of steel-casting scrap that can be used 
in these mixtures depends upon the quality of iron or metal de- 
sired in the casting, and also upon the per cent, of silicon the 
pig used in the mixture may contain, and varies from lO to 50 
per cent., the higher silicon, as in semi-steel, carrying the higher 
per cent, of scrap in producing a soft workable casting. 

Scrap of steel castings is generally sold together with that of 
cast iron with which the castings have been incorporated in 
machines for which they were designed, and as these machines 
are generally painted, it is difficult to detect a steel casting in a 
lot of scrap. This is more especially the case in agricultural 
machinery scrap, where the steel castings are small, and in agri- 
cultural districts many founders making only soft castings have 
ceased to use scrap on this account. 

The only practical way to detect steel in such scrap is for the 
sorter to break each piece until he has become familiar with the 
shape of the steel castings that may be found in the scrap of his 
district. 

Malleable Scrap. — This is the name given to condemned 
castings made from a very strong grade of white iron. They 
are very hard when first cast, but are converted into a soft 
strong iron by a process of annealing that extracts the carbon 
from the iron. In this process of annealing the characteristics 
of the iron are completely changed and it resembles a wrought 
iron more than a cast iron. This iron when remelted with 
foundry irons does not impart to the latter the characteristics 
acquired in annealing, but goes back to its original state of a 
hard iron, and has a hardening effect upon iron with which it is 
melted. A large per cent, of this scrap is said by founders to 
be burned up or lost in melting, but we have never been able to 
learn of an entire heat of it having been made to accurately de- 
termine what per cent, of it was lost. This conclusion has prob- 
ably been reached from the fact that it partakes of the nature 
of wrought iron, and the loss in the latter when melted in a 
cupola is very heavy. Founders using gray iron do not desire 



44 FOUNDRY IRONS. 

it in their mixtures of soft iron, and when found in the scrap 
pile it is thrown aside for castings in which an inferior grade of 
iron may be used. In foundries making malleable iron such 
scrap is melted in limited quantities in their regular mixtures, 
but they do not care for it, and generally confine themselves to 
that made in their own plant, such as condemned and broken 
castings. Old malleable scrap generally goes to rolling mills, 
as do also the old annealing pots, and from it is made the 
very strongest and toughest of wrought iron by what is known 
as the dry puddling process. 

Wrought Iron Scrap. — This scrap is not used to any great 
extent by founders, although it may be added to certain grades 
of foundry iron with good results in increasing strength. Pat- 
ents were taken out in England, in 1846, by Mr. Sterling, for 
toughening cast iron by adding wrought iron to it in melting. 
In his experiments he found that the exact percentage of 
wrought scrap that could be added to a cast iron depended 
upon the quality of the latter to begin with. With 10 per cent, 
of wrought iron added, the strength was increased 2 per cent; 
with 20 per cent, wrought iron, 30 per cent ; with 30 per cent, 
wrought iron, increased strengtJi 60 per cent; with 40 per cent, 
wrought iron only 33 per cent. It would therefore appear that 
his best results were obtained from a mixture of 30 per cent, 
wrought and 70 per cent, cast iron. He states in his published 
reports that the per cent, of increase in strength varied with 
different irons, and the above is probably the best results he 
was able to attain with the most favorable brands or grades 
tested. Although it is now more than 60 years since Mr. Ster- 
ling's patents were taken out, and the patents have long since 
expired, the strengthening of cast-iron by the addition of 
wrought iron has not been adopted either in this country or 
England even byfoundrymen requiring very strong iron in their 
castings. This is probably due to the fact, as stated by Mr. 
Sterling in his reports, that the increase in strength varies with 
different irons, and the difficulty of finding an iron that could 
be depended upon to give the highest strength, and also to 



SCRAP IRONS. 45 

to the fact that it is very difficult to obtain soHd castings 
from a mixture of cast and wrought iron. 

A series of small heats of wrought scrap and pig were melted 
by the writer a number of years ago, for a large foundry re- 
quiring a very strong iron. 

In these heats different brands and grades of pig were melted 
with various per cents, of wrought scrap, light and heavy. In 
each heat, the iron was accurately weighed when charged, and 
after being melted, to ascertain the loss in melting. The loss 
was found to vary from a little less than lO per cent, to a trifle 
over 20 percent., the heaviest being found with the light scrap. 
We did not obtain from any of our mixtures an increase in 
strength anywhere near that claimed by Mr. Sterling. The 
strength as well as the hardness varied with the different grades, 
the strongest iron being obtained with No. 2 Pig, but with a 
high strength the iron was generally too hard for the cast- 
ings. Trouble was also experienced in getting sound castings 
for the iron cooled rapidly in the ladle and when not poured 
very hot, the castings frequently contained small blow holes 
and dirt. An extra amount of coke was required to melt 
the iron hot, and altogether the results were so unsatisfactory 
that this means of strengthening iron was never adopted at this 
foundry. 

Over-Iron — At the last of a heat the iron is dull or melts so 
slow that it becomes too dull to pour the work before the ladle 
is filled, and it is the practice to charge a few hundred weight 
more than is actually required for castings to insure a hot iron 
for the last work to be poured. In well-regulated foundries 
this extra iron is poured into beds provided for the purpose 
near the cupola, while in others it is poured into the sand heaps 
or permitted to run from the spout upon the floor. This iron 
is called over-iron, foundry-pig, remelt, etc. It is of the same 
quality as that in the castings if made from the regular mixture 
and can be used in the mixture again, the same as gates and 
other remelt scrap. If made from refuse scrap thrown in to 
get rid of it upon the scaffold, or about the foundry, as is some- 



46 FOUNDRY IRONS. 

times the case, it should only be remelted for an inferior grade 
of castings, or with a softener for soft castings, for it is gen- 
erally too hard to be melted in the regular mixture. 

Shot-Iron. — There are numerous small particles of molten 
iron which fall from the cupola spout to the floor when tapping 
out, stopping up, and changing ladles. Iron is spilled from 
ladles in the gangways by careless moulders when carrying them, 
small particles are frequently spilled on top of moulds when 
pouring, and many of them fall from the cupola when the bottom 
is dropped. This iron, when collected, is designated in different 
foundries as shot-iron, gangway-scrap, foundry-scrap, cupola- 
scrap, tumbling-barrel scrap, etc. In describing it, we shall 
designate it by its most common name, shot-iron, and include 
in it, all very small scrap from the foundry such as shot, 
fins, vents, shells from runners, ladles, skulls, etc. 

Old Methods of Collecting This Irofi. — Some founders con- 
sidered this iron of so little value that they threw away the 
entire cupola dump, gangway cleanings, etc., without any at- 
tempt to recover the iron, others picked the larger pieces of 
it, melted and unmelted, from the dump, and threw away the 
dump and gangway cleanings, while others again picked out the 
larger pieces from the dump, threw the remainder into a tumb- 
ling barrel, from which the very small particles escaped through 
the cracks between the staves, passed the gangway refuse through 
a number-two riddle, and only recovered the larger pieces of 
iron. The latter is no doubt the most economical practice 
as it recovers considerable iron that is of value. That this iron 
has a hardening effect upon that with which it is remelted is 
well known to practical foundrymen, and this was the reason 
that many years ago, when there were no softeners and it was 
sometimes difficult to get an iron soft enough for the work, no 
pains were taken to recover all the small particles. To prevent 
or reduce this hardening effect only a few bucketfuls of water 
were sometimes thrown upon the dump to avoid chi}Hng the 
iron, and gangway scrap was thrown upon the hot dump to 
anneal over night. It is doubtful if this prevented harden- 



SCRAP IRONS. 47 

ing; at any rate it never became the general practice. To pre- 
vent this iron from hardening other irons, various plans have 
been devised for melting it, such as melting of shot at the end 
of a heat and running it into pigs to be melted with other 
iron in the regular heat. A device, patented a number of 
years ago, for melting shot, consisted of a cast-iron pot or 
tube with a contrivance for tightly closing the end with a 
cover to exclude the blast of the cupola. It has also been 
melted in open pots, tight wooden boxes and inclosed in iron 
by placing it in pig moulds and pouring molten iron upon it 
in such a way as to inclose or imbed it in the pig. 

It has been found that the quality of shot-iron is not im- 
proved but is deteriorated, by melting it at the end of a heat, 
or by a separate heat and running it into pigs, and in the latter 
form does not mix with other iron as well as when in its origi- 
nal state. This is more especially the case when the iron is 
melted separately for the reason that some time and, perhaps 
months, is required to collect a sufficient quantity of it for a 
heat. During this time it becomes heavily covered with rust, 
which greatly deteriorates the quality, as well as the quantity, 
of iron in the shot before melting; the product being an in- 
ferior quality of iron to that obtained from new shot free from 
rust. 

Modern Ways of Recovering This Iron. — Of late years a 
number of devices have been introduced for recovering all of 
this iron at a moderate cost, such as water-tight tumbling bar- 
rels, magnetic separators, screen separators, etc. These devices 
recover every particle of iron no matter how small, and at very 
little, if any greater, cost than by the old method. It is a very 
much disputed question among practical foundrymen whether it 
pays to recover such iron or not, but all agree that it is not 
worth the cost of the mixture from which it was made, and 
founders who have given particular attention to the matter only 
estimate it at 50 per cent, of this cost in figuring that of their 
mixture in which it is remelted, while many doubt if it is even 
worth this amount. In melting this iron many of the smaller 



48 FOUNDRY IRONS. 

particles are without doubt entirely burned up and lost, as in 
melting turnings and borings, and as the oxidizing action of the 
blast upon the larger shot has a hardening effect upon the iron 
melted with it, a softer grade of pig has to be used if a very- 
soft iron is required for the casting. I have never melted an 
entire heat of this shot in order to determine the loss in melt- 
ing or the quality of iron obtained from it, nor have I been able 
to learn of such a heat having been melted. However, the loss 
caused by burning up, and the hardening action due to the oxi- 
dizing effect of the very small shot and particles of iron thus 
recovered, are no doubt greater than with the larger shot col- 
ected by the old method. In a number of heats I recently 
melted for light castings, in which the shot was charged with 
each charge of iron, no bad effect of it was observed in the 
casting. But in these heats an extra amount of very soft iron 
was used, and this is probably the best way of melting this iron ; 
but to obtain the best results all the shot recovered from each 
heat should be melted in the next heat and not permitted to ac- 
cumulate. The small particles of this iron may be entirely 
destroyed, and the larger ones to a greater or less extent, by 
oxidation or rusting, and when melted after rusting the loss is 
greater, the iron harder, and it does not mix so readily with soft 
iron. A large pile of this iron that had become badly rusted 
was recently offered to a sash-weight founder at three dollars per 
ton, when pig was selling at twenty dollars per ton. The founder 
declined to take it even at this low price, giving as a reason that 
he would not get sufificient iron out of a ton to pay for melt- 
ing it. 

Melting Cast Iron Turnings and Borings. — Many tons of 
cast iron turnings, planings and borings are made by machine 
shops in finishing castings. The market value of this iron, when 
new and clean, is only about one-fourth that of the foundry iron 
from which it was made, and in many sections of the country is 
not always salable even at this low price. 

Founders having machine shops in connection with their 
foundries have reasoned that this iron came from soft castings 



SCRAP IRONS. 49 

and was therefore a soft iron, and available for melting and run- 
ning into soft castings again. Many attempts have been made 
and plans devised for utilizing it in this way, all of which have, 
to a greater or less extent, proved failures, so far as obtaining a 
satisfactory soft casting from it was concerned. 

Fine iron filings may be burned in a flame of a candle and 
nothing but a black oxide of iron be left. When this iron is 
charged into a cupola in small quantities through a heat, it is 
probably all converted into an oxide and consumed in the 
cupola, as no bad effect from it upon castings has been noticed 
when melted in this way, and probably no iron is obtained from 
it. The oxidizing action of the blast upon the small particles of 
this iron is so great that it can only be melted in a considerable 
body, and even then the iron obtained from it is white and only 
suitable for weights or work requiring such an iron. With a 
view of utilizing this iron for warm.ing ladles and preparing it for 
future use, it has been charged upon the bed and poured into 
pigs after warming the ladles, but it was found the qualit}' of 
iron was not improved by running it into pig, and melting of 
the heat was greatly retarded by placing it on the bed. 

When charged at the end of a heat with a view of running it 
into pig, very little iron is obtained, and the greater part of the 
turnings, etc., are found in a more or less oxidized condition in 
the slag and cinder adhering to the lining, or in the dump. 

To prevent oxidation of this iron in melting, it has been 
tightly rammed into cast iron pots, closed with a cast iron 
cover, and luted to exclude the cupola blast and melted alone, 
and also with other iron. This plan proved a failure, as it was 
found the quality of iron obtained was not improved to a suffi- 
cient extent to justify the expense of the pots and labor in pre- 
paring them. 

A number of plans have been devised to form this iron into a 
solid mass in pots, and also in molds without pots, by adding to 
it some material to make it stick together when rammed into a 
solid mass. For this purpose sal ammoniac water, molasses 
water, etc., have been used and the iron left for a few days 
4 



50 FOUNDRY IRONS. 

after being rammed into a pig mold or other device, to rust 
into a solid mass before melting. 

This plan worked very nicely so far as forming the iron into 
a solid mass was concerned, but it was found when melted that 
it was not softened by preparing it in this way for melting. 

Of all the plans devised for melting this iron in a cupola, prob- 
ably the best one yet found is to place it in tight wooden boxes 
holding from lOO to 200 lbs. By this plan it is held together 
until it reaches the melting zone, when the boxes are consumed, 
leaving the iron in a compact mass to be melted. In this way 
an entire heat maybe melted by placing the boxes in the cupola 
a little distance apart and putting coke between them to keep 
the cupola working open and free. By this means the oxi- 
dizing effect of the blast is reduced to a considerable extent, 
and a larger per cent, of iron obtained than when thrown in 
loose. But oxidation is not reduced to a sufficient extent to 
admit of a soft iron being obtained, and the iron melted is al- 
ways white and hard. This fact should be remembered when 
melting this iron with other irons, as the resultant mixture is 
similar to that produced when melting hard pig or scrap with 
soft pig. If the cupola is tapped close and iron drawn into 
small ladles, soft iron may be poured from one ladle while hard 
iron may be poured from another. 

The melting of this iron in boxes in a heat with other iron in 
the proportion of 5 to 10 per cent., has been known to give 
satisfactory results in heavy work, for which the iron was drawn 
in ladles holding a number of tons, and given an opportunity 
to enter into combination with the soft iron in the ladle before 
pouring. 

But, even when treated in this way, and poured into a heavy 
casting, it has in some instances been found not to thoroughly 
unite with other iron, and to produce hard spots in the casting, 
and also excessive shrinkage in parts of it, sometimes causing 
it to crack at a point least expected and at which the least 
strain on the casting should have taken place. 

The uncertainty of results of melting this iron with other 



SCRAP IRONS. 51 

iron, either for light or heavy castings, is so great that I have 
never known of a founder continuing to melt it after he had ex- 
perimented with it a sufficient length of time to learn of its fal- 
lacies. The melting of this iron in ladles has also been tried, 
but results have generally been unsatisfactory, as only a limited 
amount of it can be melted in this way even when the iron is 
very hot, and when not very hot it may be carried unmelted 
with the iron into a casting, causing hard spots. 

This may occur when the fine iron is thrown into the molten 
iron with the hand in small quantities. When placed in the 
m.olten iron from a shovel in quantities, it balls up and melts 
very slowly. When placed in the ladle before tapping, it forms 
into a solid mass in the bottom of the ladle and a layer of one 
inch in thickness may not be melted during an entire heat. It 
also causes small blow-holes in castings when placed in molten 
iron. 

In sections of the country where there is no market for this 
iron, it may be used for sidewalks, yard gangways, scrap-heap 
floors, etc. When used for such purposes a foundation of from 
10 to 12 inches of ashes or cinder should be put down to pre- 
vent it being affected by frost. The iron, when clean and free 
from rust, should be thoroughiy wet with a strong solution of 
sal ammoniac and placed upon the ash-bed three to four inches 
in thickness, evenly rammed down and left for a few days to dry 
before using. In a short time the iron will be found to have 
rusted into a solid plate of iron. 

When the turnings are heavily coated with rust, they will 
not form a solid mass when treated in this way, and should be 
mixed with a thin cement, which will hold them in a solid 
mass and make an excellent walk or floor. 

Melting Wrought Iron and Steel Turnings and Borings. — 
The melting of these turnings and borings in a cupola is more 
difficult and less profitable than the melting of cast iron ones. 
For when melted loose in small quantities, they almost or 
entirely burn up. When melted in pots or boxes they ball up 
into a solid mass which it is almost impossible to melt, and bung 
up a cupola very rapidly. 



52 FOUNDRY IRONS. 

When melted in quantities in bulk they form into a solid 
mass through which the blast does not penetrate except in 
spots, and in the only heat of them we ever melted in this way 
it was necessary to remove the lining before the cupola could 
again be placed in a proper condition for melting. 

In a series of tests made in melting this scrap, the per cent, 
of metal obtained for that charged was very small and the 
quality of metal very inferior. In fact, it did not make a good 
solid sash weight, while it was entirely too hard and brittle for 
any other casting. 

We should not advise the melting of this metal in a cupola, 
as from our experience we think it will be found more profit- 
able to sell it, and in localities where there is no market for it 
to rather throw it in the dump, than to undertake to melt it 
in a cupola. 

New Methods of Melting Turnings and Borings. — Mr. Louis 
Baden, Foundry Superintendent of the Niles Tool Works 
Foundry, Hamilton, Ohio, reports the successful melting of this 
iron by mixing it with a sufficient amount of Portland cement to 
hold the turnings together when it has set. The cement is wet 
and mixed with the turnings. The mass is then rammed into 
an iron pig mould from which it is readily removed when the 
cement has set and formed the iron into a solid mass. The pigs 
are then piled to dry for a few days, and when dry, are charged 
into the cupola w^ith the regular mixture of iron for the heat, 
Mr. Baden reports very satisfactory results with lo per cent, of 
this iron in their regular mixture for soft machine tool castings; 
a harder iron with 20 per cent. ; a still harder one with 30 per 
cent. ; and one too hard to be machined with 40 per cent. ; two 
bags of cement are said to be sufficient for a ton of borings. 

Mr. David Spence, Foundry Superintendent of the Dayton 
Motor Works Foundry, North Dayton, Ohio, obtained results 
similar to those of Mr. Baden, in melting this iron a number 
of years ago, by mixing it with cement and plaster of paris 
and forming it into pigs in the same way as Mr. Baden, but 
did not continue to prepare and melt the iron in this way for 
any length of time, and was not doing so at the Dayton plant. 



SCRAP IRONS. 53 

Briqiietting Cast Iron Borings. — The use of cast iron borings 
in the cupola has always involved great difficulty, in view of the 
fact, that the heats rarely ever show that any of the material so 
charged has been recovered. This either indicates that the 
borings have been blown out of the cupola by the blast, or that 
they have been oxidized and carried away with the slag. Vari- 
ous methods of charging the borings have been tried, but it 
seems that briquetting this material gives the most satisfactory 
results. A mold for these briquettes made from ordinary lum- 
ber, tapering from 13x7 inches at the top, to 12x6 inches at the 
bottom, will form briquettes weighing from 50 to 55 pounds 
each. A tapered mold is preferred, as the briquettes can more 
easily be removed from the boxes. The material is mixed with 
a briquetting compound, or binder, manufactured by the S. 
Obermayer Co., Cincinnati, which is thoroughly mixed in a dry 
state and sufficient water is added to temper the mixture, in 
practically the same way that an ordinary core mixture is pre- 
pared. The borings mixed with the compound are then com- 
pressed in the mold, by the use of either compressed air, or a 
hand press, and a jarr-ramming or squeezer molding machine 
can likewise be used for this work. Approximately 50. pounds 
of the briquetting compound are used per ton of borings. 
Briquettes, before using, should be permitted to remain in a 
temperature ranging from 75 to 80 degrees Fahr. for a period 
of 48 hours, when they are ready for use. When charging 
the briquettes they should not be placed on the coke bed, but 
should be included in the subsequent charges. The borings 
should be charged on top of the scrap before the coke is added. 
Approximately 10 to 15 per cent, of borings may be used to 
each cupola charge. — TJic Foundry. 

German Method of Briquetting of Iron and Metal Turnings 
and Chips. — A machine shop handling about 3000 tons of iron 
castings a year, has from 200 to 250 tons of scrap iron and 
steel turnings which it can sell to the foundry for briquetting. 
Some foundries bought the scrap and tried to melt it in cast 
iron pipes, pots or boxes, but gave it up. as it was too expensive. 



54 FOUNDRY IRONS. 

The same was true in those foundries using wooden vessels, as 
the price of lumber forbade that practice. 

Briquetting the scrap was also tried, but it was found that to 
do this a binding material was used which was high in cost, and 
had an injurious effect on the casting. 

For use in cupolas briquets of the following properties only- 
can be used : 

1. They must consist of pure iron and steel chips. 

2. They must have sufficient firmness. 

3. They must remain firm till they are melted. 

4. They must be low in cost. 

All of these requirements are met b}' the briquets made b)' 
the Ronay process. In this process the chips are dumped into 
bins and then are conveyed by belt conveyors and elevators to 
the magnetic separator, where dirt and scale are removed, and 
last of all they go to a blast, where the last traces of dust are 
blown out. They are then delivered to the press, where they 
undergo varying pressures, going up by steps and ending with 
pressures from 23,000 to 30,000 pounds. 

By this process and the special air-removal process which re- 
moves the latent air out of the briquets, a product is obtained 
which contains a minimum percentage of air, practically no air, 
and has very great firmness. 

The presses are hydraulic rotary presses of special design. 
The various sorts of material used are steel, cast iron, gray iron, 
cylinder iron, and scrap in general. These are worked and 
treated in separate bins, so that the composition of the different 
briquets can be varied at will. This is especially useful for 
foundries without laboratories, as the foundry manager can al- 
ways figure out the composition needed, and get just what he 
wants. 

Tests have shown that in the iron and briquet combination 
used in the cupola, the carbon percentage is very low. This 
loss is explained in the following way : The structure of the 
briquets, though very compact, is not completely so, and is 
porous to a certain extent. It is porous enough to allow gases 



SCRAP IRONS. 5 5 

from the furnace to penetrate through the mass. When this 
takes place, the carbon in the briquets, which is there in the form 
of graphite, is burned. As the process goes on, the decarbonized 
iron takes up fresh carbon, but the time in which this is done 
is so short that the iron cannot take up sufficient carbon to make 
up the loss. We get, therefore, iron with a low carbon per- 
centage, which is, however, very strong and gives a good grain 
to the casting. The carbon percentage can also be lowered 
by the addition of 5.15 per cent, of steel, but usually there is 
so little silicon in the iron that the castings become hard and 
difficult to machine and finish, in which case a low carbonized 
special iron must be added. 

With the use of briquets such special iron is not needed. 
With the right briquetting proportions the most sensitive parts 
can be cast, and locomotive and pump cylinders, etc. This 
combination iron can also be used for castings of great strength 
where thin walls are necessary, or castings making sudden 
changes of cross section, as gear teeth and wheels. In machine 
and lathe castings, where fine grain is wanted, this iron will be 
found useful. In practice the combination of iron with 20 to 
40 per cent, of briquets has proved efficient. 

Briquetting of metal chips is important, as it saves money, 
and is much more economical than the ordinary process of 
melting metal in crucibles. The briquets can also be used with 
other metals in cupolas, or else can be used separately and will 
give good castings. Oil account of the uniform weight they 
are easily controlled in the stock room, and the loss in convey- 
ing suffered from loose metal chips is entirely eliminated. The 
process can be used for brass, copper, aluminum, white-metal, 
and other metals. — Giesserci Zeiinng. 

Melting Borings and Turnings in the Cupola. — A process of 
charging and melting borings, turnings, etc., in the cupola to in- 
sure the melting of this material with the regular pig and scrap 
charges, and to prevent these same particles from being blown out 
of the furnace by the blast, has been patented by Walter F. Prince, 
who is in charge of the foundry department of the Interna- 



56 FOUNDRY IRONS. 

tional Steam Pump Co., Elizabeth, N. J. The material, con- 
sisting of borings, drillings or any other small particles of iron, 
is charged in wrought iron pipes, preferably Nos. i8 to 24 
gauge, and varying in length from 3 to 4 feet. The casings may 
be open end cylinders, or they can be closed at one end so as to 
hold the borings independently of stacking the casings. The 
transmission of heat through the pigs brings the borings into 
condition to readily melt down with the rest of the cupola 
charge. The entire charge of material in the furnace, there- 
fore, settles down uniformly, and as the charging on top is con- 
tinued, casings are added and are filled with borings or drillings 
as desired. The first section of pipe containing borings or 
drillings is charged on the coke bed, and other sections are 
added as the charging continues. While only one stack of 
casings is referred to, any number of stacks may be used in the 
cupola, according to the results desired. — The Foundry. 

Mr. Prince's Patented Process of Melting Borings appears to 
give better results in melting this iron than any other, as Mr. 
Prince was able to show an analysis that indicated no change in 
the composition of the mixture from that in which borings 
were not melted, and test-bars showed greater strength with, 
than without, the borings. 

In this process, a pipe made of light iron or steel the length 
of a stove pipe is used, and for small cupolas, ordinary stove 
pipe may be employed. The pipe is set upon the bed of 
coke and filled to the charging door with borings, and the 
regular charges of coke and iron are put in around it. When 
melting begins, the borings melt from the end of the pipe, 
and the latter melts away, and settles with the other stock 
in the cupola. As it settles another length of pipe is put 
on, and filled with borings, and so on throughout the heat. 
At the Worthington plant of the International Steam Plant 
Co., Harrison, N. J., where this process is regularly used, an 
extra charging door has been put in, the bottom of which is 
on the level with the top of the regular door, and a plat- 
form has been erected for charging the borings into the pipe. 



SCRAP IRONS. 57 

A twelve-inch pipe is used in their large cupola and this pipe is 
kept filled throughout the heat. The advantage claimed for 
this process is that the pipe protects the borings from the 
action of the blast upon them. More heat is required to melt 
the steel pipe than the borings, and hence, only the borings in 
the end of the pipe come in contact with the fuel and blast be- 
fore being melted. The cost for pipe used at this plant is $i .25 
per ton of borings melted. A small royalty is charged for the 
use of this patent. 

These new processes of melting this iron show up very well, 
as various other processes have on the start, but were finally 
abandoned for the reasons before stated, and unless they over- 
come these objectionable features, namely, hard and spotted 
iron, excessive shrinkage in parts, etc., they too will soon be 
abandoned. 

Steel Turnings. — Steel turnings are melted more rapidly in 
a ladle than either cast or wrought iron turnings, and have a 
decidedly hardening and strengthening effect upon the iron 
for gear wheels and other castings requiring a close, strong 
iron without chilling. The long thin clean turnings of soft 
steel that melt quickly are used, and they are dropped into the 
molten iron in such small quantities as will not admit of their 
balling up, and thoroughly stirred into the iron with a bar that 
has previously been heated to avoid chilling the molten metal. 
Results in this case as in all others, in which a different metal 
is added to cast iron, depend to a large extent upon the quality 
of the cast iron to which the turnings are added ; and iron 
low in silicon will be hardened to a greater extent than one high 
in silicon. I have never learned of these turnings being melted 
alone in a cupola, but the result would probably be similar to 
that of wrought iron turnings, and very little metal be ob- 
tained from them. 

Mr. Prince claimed that with his process these turnings are 
tnelted with the cast iron turnings, but an excess of them would 
no doubt have a semi-steel effect upon the iron. 

W. 7. Keep's Method of Melting; Borings. — Mr. Keep, in 



58 FOUNDRY IRONS. 

answer to an inquiry as to the best method of melting borings 
writes in The Foundry, as follows: " I would advise spreading 
the borings over the sand bottom before the kindling is put into 
the cupola, which should be spread approximately i or 2 inches 
thick. This charge of borings will be melted by the first iron 
that comes down and will not injure ihe mixture. By experi- 
menting, you can soon ascertain hovv thick a layer of borings 
can be used." 

This method is new to me, and I have never seen or heard 
of it being tried, but should think the results would be similar 
to that of placing borings in the bottom of a ladle and tapping 
iron upon them, in which case they cake up and are not melted 
with the ladle in constant use during a heat. 

Melting Cast Iron Borings in the Cupola. — In answer to the 
inquiry made in the January issue of The Foundry, regarding 
the best method of melting cast iron borings in the cupola, Mr. 
T. Shaw says: " I have a suggestion to offer that has given me 
excellent results in the past. When charging the cupola, I 
usually lay about 200 pounds of small scrap evenly on the bed 
of coke, and on top of this layer I charge from lOO to 200 
pounds of borings. I then complete the charging of the 
furnace in the usual way, the weight of the pig iron being 
sufficient to prevent the borings from being blown out of the 
stack. Some of the borings arc, of course, lost in this way, 
but the speed of the blower can be regulated and the blast can 
be kept down to eight or ten ounces. 

" Before bedding in the last two charges, it is advisable to re- 
duce the speed of the blower about one-half, as the greater loss 
will occur at this time, if the furnace is not properly controlled. 

" Another method that has given good results provides for the 
charging of the borings when the furnace is running low and 
after the molds have all been poured. The entire charge of 
borings can be made, amounting to 2,000 pounds, and can be 
melted with a small amount of coke, as the furnace is hot 
enough at this time to almost melt these small particles of iron. 
This iron will be suitable to run in the pig bed. The borings 



SCRAP IRONS. 59 

can also be thrown unto the pigs while still in a molten state, 
and it will be found that a considerable quantity will be absorbed 
and held in this way." 

This method amounts to charging the borings loose in the 
cupola with the regular heat, and has been tried and proved a 
failure many times. 

Use of Borings for Annealing Scale. — Dr. Richard Moldenke 
offers in " The Foundry " the following remarks on the subject: 
"A number of years ago the custom of adding cast or steel 
borings to the scale used for packing about castings to be an- 
nealed came into vogue, and has continued more or less to the 
present time. The object at the time this was being introduced 
was first to get rid of a drug on the iron market, and second to 
take up the burning effects of any stray air that might get into 
a pot and thus save the sharp edges of the castings. 

"A correspondent asks about the quantity to be used. First 
of all it is better to prevent the trouble than to correct it ; that 
is, to lute up the pots properly, so that small currents of air 
cannot enter and circulate about the castings, which should be 
packed so tightly in scale that no openings are left between 
them. This will obviate the use of any borings. 

" However, if it is an economic question, that is, if the bor- 
ings cannot be sold, the supply that comes from the machine 
shop can be scattered on the scale piles every day in any quan- 
tity up to the amount which will not be oxidized in the first an- 
neal. That is, if so large a quantity of the borings is used that 
when dumping the pots a large amount has remained unoxi- 
dized, or only partly so, more has been put in than was necessary 
to accomplish the object desired. Reduce the amount ac- 
cordingly. 

" As a general rule there is seldom more than a fraction of a 
per cent, of the annealing scale used daily, from borings made 
in the machine shop of a malleable works, and hence the ques- 
tion is not a very live one. If a good price can be obtained 
for the borings, it is better to sell than to add them to the scale." 



CHAPTER IV. 
Mixing Irons. 

Mixtures of Iron. — Mixtures are made of the various brands 
and grades of foundry irons for castings, for the following 
reasons : It has been found practically impossible to procure a 
single brand or grade of iron that can be depended upon to give 
the quality of metal desired in any one line of castings. Two 
or more lines of them are frequentl)- made in a foundr)'. 
each requiring a different grade of iron. Irons made from dif- 
ferent ores in different furnaces are generally considered to make 
a stronger and better casting, when mixed, than those from one 
furnace. A cheaper metal, suitable for the line of work to be 
cast, can frequently be obtained by mixing high- and low-priced 
irons than from any one iron. Pig and old scrap generally 
make a stronger casting than all pig. Silvery irons cannot be 
used except in mixtures, for by themselves they are generally 
too weak for castings, but they give softness and strength to 
iron that by itself is too hard for castings. Products from three 
or four furnaces generally give the best grade of iron in cast- 
ings, this number enabling the founder to produce an iron of 
any desired quality by varying the percent, of different brands 
and grades in his mixture. In making mixtures neither frac- 
ture indication or analysis indicates to the average foundryman 
the quality of iron that may be obtained from a mixture of two 
or more irons, and to enable him to make a mixture with any 
degree of certainty, he must first acquire a thorough knowl- 
edge of his irons by an actual test in melting them together. 
This is sometimes a very expensive operation, for an entire heat 
of castings may be lost through the iron being unsuitable for 
the line of work to be cast. To reduce such losses to a mini- 

(60) 



MIXING IRONS. 6 1 

mum in trying new iron, only a small per cent, of it is melted, 
in one charge or part of a heat. Should this prove satisfac- 
tory the percent, is gradually increased until the desired amount 
is used in a mixture. After a satisfactory mixture has been at- 
tained in a foundry, it is carefully guarded to prevent other 
foundries from getting hold of it, and at some foundries where 
special lines of work are made, precaution is taken to not even 
let the foreman or cupola men know the mixtures. This is done 
by not permitting them to learn the names of the irons used, 
and when piled in the yard, giving to each brand or grade a 
number, letter, or other mark by which it is to be known in the 
mixture, the latter being always made in the office and given to 
the foreman or melter. 

A mixture made by one founder is only of value to another 
one who has or may obtain the same brands of iron, and is there- 
fore only of local interest. We have at hand a number of mix- 
tures made at different foundries for the various classes of work. 
In all these mixtures local brands of iron are used that are only 
obtainable in certain districts, and as each founder must depend 
upon the brands obtainable in his market, at a reasonable price, 
these mixtures would be of so little value that no space will be 
given to them in this work, which v.ill probably reach all sec- 
tions of this, as well as of other, countries, but we shall endeavor 
to give a general outline of how mixtures are made for different 
classes of castings. 

Stove Plate Mixtures. — Stove-plate founders only work No. 
I and No. 2 plain or No. i and No. 2 X irons, and from two to 
four brands of each number, although we have known of as high 
as seventeen different irons having been used in this mixture. 
A pig known as a softener is also generally carried in the yard. 
This pig contains from 4 to 6 per cent, silicon ; it is very weak 
and is only used in a mixture when the other irons run too hard 
for the castings. In making mixtures the No. i is known as 
the soft, and the No. 2 as the strong, iron. These irons are 
mixed in about even proportions. Should the resulting metal 
prove too hard, the proportion of No. i is increased, and if soft. 



K 



62 FOUNDRY IRONS. 

but weak, that of No. 2. If it is hard and strong, the softener 
is added and in this way an iron of the desired quality is ob- 
tained. The mixture is also sometimes improved by using a 
larger per cent, of one brand than of another, or all No. i of 
one brand and all No. 2 of another, and so on. In this way 
the mixture is varied from day to day till the best results that 
can be obtained from the irons entering into the mixtures are 
determined. This is effected by means of test-bars, which in- 
dicate strength, .softness and shrinkage. Bench and all very 
light casting foundries use about the same grades of irons as 
stove foundries and mix them in about the same way. The re- 
melt in these foundries is so heavy that old scrap is seldom used 
in the mixtures. 

Machinery Mixtures. — For very light machinery about the 
same brands and grades of iron are worked as for stove plate, 
but a larger per cent, of No. 2 is generally used in the mix- 
tures. 

For heavy machinery irons from different furnaces than those 
from which the stove plate founders receive their supply are 
generally used. These irons are stronger, and grades from 
Nos. I to 4 are employed. In making mixtures for light soft 
work, Nos. I and 2 are used, for heavy work, Nos. i , 2 and 3, and 
for heavy work requiring a very strong close iron, mixtures are 
made of Nos. 2 and 3 or Nos. 2, 3 and 4. In making these 
mixtures the same practice is followed as in the stove plate 
foundries, and the suitability of the iron for the work to be 
cast is determined by means of test bars before an entire heat 
of iron for a special casting is melted. 

All foundries have one or more brands of iron which they 
know from experience they can depend upon for hardness, soft- 
ness, strength or chilling properties, and these are regarded as 
their standard irons that can be relied upon to give either of 
these characteristics desired, and in making mixtures, other 
irons are added to them to increase or decrease hardness, soft- 
ness, strength, or chill, as maybe desired in the casting. 

No practical founder would undertake to melt, even by an- 



MIXING IRONS. 63 

alysis, an entire heat of pig he knew nothing about, except for 
the more common grades of castings. 

Mixtures of Pig and Scrap. — It is well known among prac- 
tical foundrymen that a mixture of pig and scrap, of a good 
quality, produces a stronger, cleaner and better casting than a 
mixture of all pig, and it is the practice when good scrap can 
be obtained to use a large per cent, of it in mixtures for strong 
• castings. Founders making a special line of work, only pur- 
chase a grade of scrap that experience has taught them to be 
suitable for their castings. The iron in the scrap is about what 
they desire in their castings, and, in making a mixture, only 
sufficient soft strong pig is used to offset the hardening effect of 
remelting the scrap. Founders making lines of work for which 
different grades of iron are required, purchase several grades 
of scrap for the various lines of castings, and mix them with 
pig such as tests have shown to prevent hardening and to 
increase the desired quality of iron in the castings. Jobbing 
foundries purchase promiscuous scrap and sort it to suit their 
work, and in this way are able produce an iron of almost any 
desired quality with only a limited variety and grade of pig. 

For soft strong castings a soft machinery scrap and No. i pig 
are used at the rate of 25 to 50 per cent, pig; for a hard or 
close iron a close scrap with a small per cent, of No. i pig, or 
an open scrap with a No. 2 pig, in various proportions to suit 
the work ; for hard castings, stove plate and other small scrap, 
alone, or with No. 2 pig; for chilled castings, a hard scrap with 
a No. 2 or 3 pig having a tendency to chill. 

Mixtures arc also made with scrap and high silicon iron as a 
softener. These mixtures are used for various classes of cast- 
ings, the per cent, of pig in them depending upon the percent, 
of silicon it contains, and varying from 15 to 50 per cent. When 
making this mixture, the pig should be broken in short pieces 
and mixed with the scrap when charging, to insure its mixing 
with the iron of the scrap when melting. 

In all cases, pig should be broken in pieces to correspond to 
the size of the scrap and charged in a way that will insure the 



64 FOUNDRY IRONS. 

mixing of the irons in melting and their dropping to the bottom 
of the cupola. 

Remelt Iron. — Remelt is the term by which all iron is known 
that is to be remelted ; this comprises bad castings, gates, 
runners, sink heads, over-iron, etc. This iron is of the same 
quality from which the mixture was made, only a shade harder, 
and it is the practice to melt a sufficient quantity of it in each 
charge of iron, so that all of it is melted in succeeding heats.- 
As there is always about the same per cent, of this iron to be 
melted, it is considered as part of the regular mixture, and a 
quality of pig that will render it sufficiently soft for the castings 
is melted with it. In many foundries the remelt is so light that 
little attention need be given to it, but in stove and bench work 
foundries it sometimes amounts to as high as 50 per cent, of 
the heat melted, and then becomes a matter of importance in 
making mixtures. 

Locomotive Cylinder Mixtures. — The following mixtures are 
recommended by Mr. Paul R. Ramp for locomotive cylinders. 
Mr. Ramp has had a wide experience in this line of castings, 
and the mixtures are no doubt good ones when the brands of 
iron named can be obtained : 

No. I. Pounds. 

Longdale pig iron 7°° 

Cylinder scrap 600 

Hard scrap 50o 

Steel scrap • 200 

Tensile strength 31,990 to 32,810 pounds per square inch. 

No. 2. Per cent. 

No. I Lake Superior pig iron 5° 

Car wheel centers 25 

Selected scrap 25 

Tensile strength 2,800 pounds per square inch. 

No. 3. P^"' cent. 

No. 2 Champion pig iron 3° 

No. 4 Salisbury pig iron 25 

Cylinder scrap 35 

Car wheel scrap 'O 

Tensile strength 2,400 pounds per square inch. 



MIXING IRONS. 65 

'■^'0. 4. Pounds. 

No. 2 Crozier pig iron I. coo 

No. 2 Crane pig iron I. coo 



Chilled wheels 



1.500 



No. I Cylinder scrap i.cco 

Tensile strength 2,100 to 2,300 pounds per square inch. 

^'c- 3- Per cent. 

Shelby No. 5 pig iron lO 

Warwick No. 3 pig iron 25 

Niagara No. 2 pig iron 25 

Car wheel scrap 20 

No. I scrap 20 

Tensile strength 2,ico pounds per square inch. 

^'0. 6. Pounds. 

Charcoal Buffalo pig iron 200 

Buffalo No. 2 pig iron 2CO 

Buffalo No. 2 plain pig iron 600 

No. I scrap 3C0 

Car wheel scrap 4C0 

Steel scrap 300 

Tensile strength 3,200 to 3,350 pounds per square inch. 

There are several other mixtures used by concerns producing 
cylinder castings, but those given above are sufficient to outline 
latter-day practice. It is possible to duplicate a mixture, but 
the analysis cannot be duplicated with the same mixture in 
another cupola, unless the operating conditions are the same in 
both. For this reason uniform iron mixtures cannot be used in 
widely separated districts. The design of the casting is another 
important feature that materially affects results. A low silicon 
mixture with a comparatively high sulphur content can be used 
if the casting is designed for a uniform thickness of metal 
throughout. 

Making Mixtures. — In the preceding pages a general outline 
has been given of the way in which mixtures are made for 
various kinds of castings requiring a certain grade of iron, the 
latter being a necessity, for the reason that an iron suitable for 
stove plate would be entirely too soft, weak, and porous for 
heavy machinery. A mixture for heavy machinery would be 
5 . 



66 FOUNDRY IRONS. 

too hard and brittle for stove plate ; a car-wheel mixture en- 
tirely too hard for machinery, and a machinery mixture would 
not give the required chill in a car wheel, the same being to a 
greater or less extent the case in iron for all the various grades 
of castings. 

Mixtures were formerly made from the indications of fracture 
in the newly-broken pig, but since the introduction of new 
methods of casting and cooling pig iron, fracture indications are 
very deceptive, and it is only in pig cast and cooled by the old 
method that they can be depended upon even by fracture ex- 
perts. Analyses have therefore almost entirely taken the place 
of fracture indications, but these also are deceptive, and the mix- 
ture has to be actually melted and cast before its exact charac- 
teristics can be determined. But mixtures by fracture indica- 
tion have not been entirely abandoned and there are many 
founders who still adhere to this method. In a foundry re- 
cently visited, in a small town in Maryland, I met a foundry- 
man who was making a general line of castings requiring a 
number of grades of iron. He also had a government contract 
for cylinders and other castings, the specifications for which 
called for a certain density, tensile and transverse strengths. 
He was making his mixtures for these castings entirely by frac- 
ture indications and a knowledge of the irons gained from pre- 
vious experience in- melting them. His method was to carefully 
sort his promiscuous scrap and melt each grade or quality with a 
pig suitable to it. In this way he had no trouble in filling all the 
requirements of a government specification, and not a single cast- 
ing had been condemned on account of falling short of these 
specifications. At another foundry in Wisconsin, a foundry 
superintendent was met who was making a general line of soft 
castings, and also a large line of crusher work requiring a hard, 
deep chill. For this work he was mixing from blast furnace 
analysis, fracture indication and a knowledge of the irons gained 
in previously melting them. Irons of extremely varying grades, 
such as a soft, strong iron, one with a half-inch white chill, a 
two- and three-inch white chill, and a two- and three-inch 



MIXING IRONS. 6^ 

mottled chill, were melted in the same heat and satisfactory re- 
sults in the castings obtained. 

In the mixing of irons a practical knowledge of their char- 
acteristics gained by melting them is absolutely necessary to 
insure success, no matter whether they are mixed by a chemist 
and accurate analysis, or by the founder from blast furnace 
analysis, or no analysis at all. To gain this knowledge an ac- 
curate account of the irons and proportions of each in the mix- 
ture should be kept, as well as their analysis, and after the re- 
sultant iron has been tested, a note should be made of its 
quality or suitability for work cast. Such an account not only 
serves as a guide in keeping the mixture up to the desired 
standard, but is a great help in making new mixtures and trying 
new brands of iron. 



CHAPTER V. 

Loss AND Gain of Iron in Melting. 

Loss of Iron in Melting. — It is a very difficult matter to de- 
termine the per cent, actually lost in melting iron, owing to the 
carelessness of cupola men in weighing the iron that goes into 
the cupola, and in the practice in distributing molten iron, col- 
lecting castings, over-iron, recovering iron from dump, etc. In 
more than a hundred heats, melted by the writer, in different 
foundries for various classes of work, to determine the loss in 
melting for these classes of work, the results were found to 
vary from a gain of three per cent, to a loss of twenty per cent, 
on the regular foundry mixture. This would no doubt be the 
experience of a majority of founders to-day, if they were to 
attempt to ascertain their loss in melting and trusting to the 
weights of cupola men and others. Full fifty per cent, of these 
heats were manifestly incorrect, and it was only by correcting 
the system of weighing and collecting iron in castings and re- 
melt, and trying again, that any conclusion could be reached. 
From these heats, it was concluded, that the loss in melting for 
different classes of work, was about as follows : 

Pig and remelt for heavy machinery castings 3 per cent. 

Pig and remelt scrap for light machinery and jobbing work 4 
per cent. 

Pig and remelt for stove-plate and bench-work 5 to 6 per 
cent. 

The increase in loss is due to the increase in light remelt 
scrap, which varied, in stove and bench foundries in which the 
tests were made, to from 30 to 50 per cent, of the heat. These 
tests were made from the regular foundry mixture for the class 
of work indicated. And the loss, which is almost double in 
stove and bench work foundries, is due to the heavy remelt of 

(68) 



LOSS AND GAIN OF IRON IN MELTING. 69 

small gates and scrap. The following estimate of loss upon pig 
and old scrap, were made fgr the various lines of castings with 
the average mixture and remelt for such work. 

Pig and heavy machinery scrap for heavy work 3 per cent. 

Pig and small machinery scrap for light machinery 5 per 
cent. 

Pig and promiscuous scrap for jobbing work 7 per cent. 

Pig and old stove plate, plain work, 9 per cent. 

These losses indicate those on an entire heat of these irons, 
and, as all these mixtures are frequently melted in one heat 
in jobbing foundries, show the average less to be 6 per cent. 
This loss will vary to some extent to the amount of each grade 
of scrap in the mixture melted. It also varies with the size of 
heat melted, and in all cases is greater in light heats than in heavy 
ones due to a larger"per cent, of shot iron and cupola waste. 
These losses were determined before the new m.ethods of recov- 
ering all the shot and small pieces of iron were introduced. But 
as these small particles that were formerly thrown away are 
probably all burned up in melting, a test in which they are 
melted with the regular mixture will probably show about the 
same loss. 

Loss in Melting Machinery Serap. — The loss in melting 
machinery scrap varies with its quality. With a heavy clean 
scrap, it is net any greater than that of pig iron. And with 
light scrap, rusted and dirty, it varies according to the size of 
the scrap, and runs as high as 7 per cent. 

Loss in Melting Old Steve Plate Scrap. — In a number of 
heats of all old stove plate, melted in different foundries to 
determine the loss in melting, it was found to be from 10 to 
15 per cent., it varying with the extent to which the plate was 
rusted and the care Vv'ith which it was picked over. This 
was the actual loss in melting and does not cover the total 
loss on this iron. This scrap when piled in the yard, and 
exposed to the weather oxidizes very rapidly, iron being thus 
lost. Many small pieces are lost in the yard in breaking up 
the stoves, and the latter frequently contain ashes and dirt, 



JO FOUNDRY IRONS. 

which have been weighed as iron. Badly burned pieces, such 
as grates, fire-plates, covers, cross-pieces, etc., are generally 
thrown out, all of which increase the loss on weight of iron 
purchased. Taking all these losses into consideration, practical 
foundrymen figure the loss on this scrap at from 12 to 20 per 
cent. New plate from the foundry is considered at 6 per cent, 
loss. 

Loss in Melting Plow Point Scrap. — In a number of heats 
melted at Albany, N. Y., of scrap selected from a promiscu- 
ous pile to determine the loss on the different scraps, it was 
found that plow points showed the smallest loss in melting of 
any of the small scraps. This loss as indicated by a number 
of heats was 4 per cent. ' 

Loss in Melting Shot Lron. — The writer has made many curious 
tests to determine the loss in melting this iron. Among them 
was one made at the foundry of the Perry Stove Works, Albany, 
N. Y. They had a lot of shot-iron that had become mixed 
with small anthracite coal and it was determined to burn the 
coal under the boilers, and in this way melt the iron and permit 
it to drop into the ash-pit, from which all the ashes had ^een 
removed and a hole arranged in the center into which the iron 
would run and form a solid ma.ss. A good hot fire was pre- 
pared under the boilers, and a thick layer of shot and coal 
spread over it. The ash pit doors were then tightly closed and 
a blast turned into the ash pit. Mica had previously been put 
into the furnace doors so that the effect of the heat upon the 
iron might be seen. When the iron upon the surface came 
near the melting point, the small shot threw off beautiful bright 
stars of all colors and shapes, presenting the appearance of 
fire works. In these stars all the small particles of iron were 
converted into the black oxide of iron. The iron under the 
surface must have gone the same way, for none of it was found 
in the ash pit or upon the grate bars, although fully 300 lbs. 
were placed in the furnace. This seems to indicate that in 
melting this iron it should be excluded from the air as much as 
possible and melted quickly to reduce loss. 



LOSS AND GAIN OK IRON IN MELTING. 7 1 

In a heat of one ton of shot put up in wooden boxes and 
melted at the same foundry the loss was 20 per cent. This shot 
was to some extent composed of vents, rods, fins, etc., which 
had been recovered from the sand heaps and was considerably 
rusted. Tiie iron obtained was very hard, although the shot 
had been made from very soft stove-plate iron. 

In a heat melted at a stove works in Louisville, Ky., in which 
1000 pounds of shot were charged loose on the bed and the 
regular heat for stove plate melted with it, the loss on the entire 
heat of five tons was 8 per cent. The cupola melted slower 
than usual, which was probably due to the slag and dirt from the 
shot covering the bed and clogging the cupola. 

In a heat melted at the Baldwin Locomotive Works, Phila- 
delphia, Pa., in 1874, the loss was 15 per cent., with the shot 
put up in wooden boxes, and the iron obtained was very hard. 

In a heat melted at the Fort Pitt Foundry, Pittsburg, Pa., the 
loss was 1 8 per cent. The shot was smaller than that at the Bald- 
win works, and was put up in wooden boxes and melted in the 
same way; iron very hard and unfit for anything but weights. 

Rust increases the loss on this iron, and also the hardness. It 
should never be permitted to accumulate about a foundry. 

Loss ill Melting Burned Iron. — When managing a malleable 
iron foundry in 1873, we accumulated quite a lot of old anneal- 
ing boxes for which there was no market, and it was decided to 
try melting them in a cupola and running the iron into boxes or 
pig for use in our regular mixture. Some of these boxes were 
cast from white iron, and others from grey iron. The grey iron 
boxes, which were heavier than the white iron ones, were tried 
first. We obtained from them about 40 per cent, of very hard 
iron, with a large amount of slag, which was so mixed with the 
iron that it could not be separated from it until cooled. The 
white iron boxes produced about 50 per cent, of iron, which was 
also combined with the slag ; and they required more fuel to 
melt than the grey iron boxes. 

In a heat I melted at the American Stove and Hollow Ware 
Co., Philadelphia, Pa., in 1874. of annealing pots that had been 



72 FOUNDRY IRONS. 

used in annealing hollow ware, the loss was 30 per cent., with so 
large a per cent, of slag that the iron could not be run into the 
castings for which it was melted. 

These pots were 2 inches thick and had not been subjected to 
so great a heat as the malleable annealing boxes. 

In a heat, melted at Norfolk, Va., of the ends of grate bars 
that had not been in the fire and showed but little signs of having 
been heated, the fracture indicating a soft iron, the loss in melt- 
ing was 18 per cent. The iron was white, hard and brittle, but 
slag was not excessive and separated readily from the molten 
iron. These bars were cast at a locomotive works from soft 
iron. 

In a heat melted at the foundry of Noyes & Co., Buffalo, N. Y., 
of hot-blast pipe that had been used in heating blast for drying 
purposes, the loss was 25 per cent. This pipe had not been 
heated to a very high temperature and showed but little indi- 
cations of having been burned. 

The iron obtained from burned iron is only fit for weights, 
and probably the best way to melt the latter for this purpose is 
to mix it in small quantities with other scrap. The slag then acts 
as a flux for the cupola. 

Loss and Gain in Melting Pig and Scrap Iron. — The follow- 
ing tables show the loss and gain in melting pig iron, and the 
loss in melting scrap iron. 

Gain in melting 100 net tons of pig iroji bought in gross 
tons of 2,240 lbs., and castings sold in net tons or pounds. 100 
gross tons are equal to 112 net tons, and, therefore, there is a 
gain in iron on all losses under 12 per cent. 



Iron. 


Per 


cent. 


lost in 


nie 


:hing. 


Iron 


lost. 


Iron 


gainc 


:d. 


Cast 


ings. 


100 


Tons. 






3 






3I 


"ons. 


9' 


Tons. 




IC9 


Tons. 


100 








4 






4 




8 


" 




108 




100 








5 






5 




7 


C( 




107 




ICO 








6 






6 




6 


<c 




106 




100 








7 






7 




S 


'* 




105 




100 








8 






8 




4 


(( 




104 




100 








9 






9 




3 


(( 




103 




100 








10 






10 




2 


I< 




102 




100 








II 






II 




I 


(1 




lOI 




100 








12 






12 







•* 




ICO 





LOSS AND GAIN OF IRON IN MELTING. 73 

Loss in melting lOO tons of scrap iron bought in net tons 
and sold as net tons or pounds : 



Iron. 


Per 


cent. 


, los 


ICO ' 


Tons. 








ICO 








4 


ICO 








5 


ICO 








6 


lOO 








7 


ICO 








8 


ICO 








9 


ICO 








10 


ICO 








II 


ICO 








12 



Iron loft. 


Cnf 


Mings. 


3 'Jons. 


97 


Tons. 


4 " 


S6 




5 " 


95 




6 " 


94 




7 " 


93 




8 " 


52 




9 " 


91 




lO " 


go 




II " 


^'9 




12 " 


88 





A comparison of these two tables shews that there is a gain 
of 12 tons of castings in favor of the pig iron against the scrap, 
when the percentage of loss in melting each is the same, while 
only in the melting of heavy machinery scrap the loss is the 
same as that of pig iron, it being heavier in all other grades of 
scrap until old stove plate is reached with which it may be 15 
per cent. In this case only 85 tons of castings could be pro- 
duced from 100 tons of scrap. Pig iron should, and can be, 
melted in a well-managed cupola with a loss not to exceed 3 
per cent, for heavy castings, w-here the remclt is light and the 
remelt scrap comparatively heavy. By allowing 5 per cent, 
loss in melting pig and 7 per cent, loss on light scrap there is a 
difference of 14 tons of castings in favor of pig, and a still 
greater difference as the scrap becomes sm.aller and poorer. 
These figures and tables should convince any founder that 
the price at which scrap is now being sold is entirely too high 
in comparison with the price of pig. In some foundry districts 
scrap i^ sold in gross tons of 2240 lbs., but even in these dis- 
tricts the price is too high to be profitable to the founder, for 
at least 2 to 3 per cent, more iron is lost in melting, and 
more labor is required to handle scrap, because one man can 
load and deliver two to three barrows or trucks full of pig, while 
another one is loading and delivering one of small scrap, a 
greater expense for labor being thus incurred. 



74 FOUNDRY IRONS. 

These matters should all be taken into consideration and 
investigated in figuring cost of castings. When this has been 
done the price of scrap will no doubt come down on a par 
with that paid in the days of rule of thumb foundry prac- 
tice, when founders evidently knew more about the value of 
scrap in founding than the scientific founders of to-day. 

No more than $12 per ton is at the present time paid for 
rolled-plate steel scrap by the manufacturers of steel, and the 
ratio of difference in price should exist between that of pig 
and scrap as between that of steel and scrap steel. 

Stove Foundry Melting. — The following tables show statements 
of melting per cent, of castings, remelt, fuel and gain in iron.which 
were furnished by four of the leading stove foundries of Albany 
and Troy, N. Y., and published in my work, the "Founding of 
Metals" in 1877; they represent the melting and output of 
these foundries for the year 1876. At that time Albany and 
Troy were the leading stove centers of this country. Stove 
founders have always been noted for better cupola practice than 
machinery and jobbing founders. These reports show more 
accurately and completely what may be done in cupola practice 
than any reports I have ever seen published : 

FIRST FOUNDRY. 

Tons. Lbs. 

Gross amount of iron melted 2,049 i>o87 

Amount of pig melted i)300 1,860 

Amount of clean castings net 1)344 919 

Percentage of cleaned castings produced to total iron melted . 57-7° 

Percentage of coal used in melting 15-55 

SECOND FOUNDRY. 

Tons. 9 Lbs. 

Gross amount of iron melted 2,817 1,420 

Amount of pig iron melted 1,842 1,871 

Percentage of cleaned castings produced to total iron melted . 62.12 

Percentage of fuel used in melting 1 4-51 



LOSS AND GAIN OF IRON IN MELTING. 75 

THIRD FOUNDRY. 

Tons. Lbs. 

Gross amount of iron melted 3)328 84 

Amount of pig iron melted 2,118 521 

Amount of cleaned castings net 2,216 987 

Percentage of cleaned castings produced to total iron melted . 56.35 

Percentage of coal used in melting . .- 16. 12 

The following statement was received from the largest stove 
foundry in the United States at the time it was made : 

Tons. Lbs. 

Gross amount of iron melted 6,695 i»i97 

Amount of pig iron melted 4,276 1,042 

Amount of cleaned castings net 4,433 975 

Net gain of castings over gross tons of pig iron 157 

Percentage of cleaned castings produced to total iron melted . S^-4^ 

Percentage of coal used in melting 15.08 

This last table shows the melting done and results obtained 
at the Perry Stove Works. Albany, N. Y., for the year 1876, 
and was prepared by Mr. John S. Perry, the great pioneer of 
modern stove and range designs and construction, and the most 
accurate figurer of foundry cost this country or any other has 
ever produced. But Mr. Perry died a poor man, while his 
competitors grew rich, which very clearly indicates that success 
in foundry practice does not all depend upon an accurate cost 
of production system. 

This report, leaving off the odd pounds or fraction of a ton, 
shows that 4,276 gross tons of iron were melted. Reducing 
this amount to net tons, the same as cleaned castings, there is a 
gain of 513 tons in pig, making a total of 4,789 tons of pig 
melted; deduct from this the weight of cleaned castings, 4,433 
tons, and there is a loss of 356 tons of iron in melting or 7.43 
per cent, on the pig. Take from the 4,433 tons of castings, 
the 4,276 gross tons of pig, or the 356 tons lost in melting 
from the 513 net tons gained in reducing 4,276 gross tons to 
net, and there is to the founder a gain in iron of 157 tons in 
castings in the melting and casting of 4,276 gross tons of pig. 
The total amount melted was 6,695 tons, or 906 tons more than 



76 FOUNDRY IRONS. 

the net tons of pig. No old scrap was melted and this amount 
represents the remelt, which was 41.59 per cent, of the total 
amount melted in each heat. The loss on total amount melted, 
6,695 tons, was 356 tons, the same as on the pig, but shows a 
per cent, loss of 5.31 as against 7.43 on the pig, or 2.12 less 
than the pig. 

This heavier loss on the pig was due to the remelt of 41.59 
per cent., or 906 tons, which had to be melted twice before it 
was put into castings. These figures of per cent, of loss in 
melting show the fallacy of figuring the loss in melting on a test 
heat to determine that in melting, for the pig or scrap purchased 
and paid for is the only iron on which the loss is sustained. 

These heats were all melted with anthracite coal as fuel, but 
little used for the purpose at the present time, and show the per 
cent, of this fuel required to melt iron sufficiently hot for light 
stove plate. The figures given are the per cent, of fuel con- 
sumed in melting 100 pounds of iron, and not pounds of iron 
melted to the pound of fuel. 

■ Detcrminhtg Actual Loss of Iron. — It is interesting and of 
value to know the actual loss of iron in melting in a well-man- 
aged cupola. Such a knowledge serves to keep down the loss 
from excessive blast, scanty fuel, carelessness in recovering iron 
from dumps, gangways, etc. But loss in melting by no means 
indicates the loss of iron that the founder is liable to. In soft 
foundry yards a great deal of iron may be lost by sinking into 
the ground in wet weather. I visited a foundry at Hartford, 
Conn., some years ago, to which an addition was being built 
over the iron yard. In digging the trench for the foundation 
for this addition, twenty bars of pig iron were recovered, and 
had the entire yard been dug over, many tons of iron would no 
doubt have been found. Many small pieces of iron are lost in 
breaking scrap in these yards, and two or three feet in depth 
of almost solid iron may be found in yards where scrap has 
been broken for years. Iron is buried in the foundry in sand 
and refuse. Bad castings have been buried and thrown in ponds 
or rivers by moulders to conceal poor moulding and loss of 



LOSS AND GAIN OF IRON IN MELTING. TJ 

castings, and there are many other ways in which iron may be 
lost. The best method, therefore, of determining loss of iron 
is not to depend upon the cupola report for it, but to reduce 
gross tons of iron to net tons or pounds and compare this 
with pounds of castings sold or on hand, and visible stock of 
iron on hand, because all stock not visible is lost, whether it 
has gone up the cupola stack or lost in some of the many other 
ways in which it may disappear from view. 



CHAPTER VI. 

Castings by Direct Process. 

In the early days of founding, castings were cast with molten 
iron taken direct from the furnace in which the ore was 
smelted and the iron made. In those days the remelting of 
iron for castings was not practiced, and all castings, light and 
heavy, were cast direct from the furnace. The iron from 
many of the ores smelted was not suitable for castings, and this 
prevented many of the furnacemen from engaging in the busi- 
ness, while those having ores that produced a suitable grade of 
iron for castings met with such difficulty and uncertainty in ob- 
taining the grade of iron desired, owing to the lack of knowl- 
edge in controlling the furnace, that the business was not ver)- 
profitable. This led to the invention of the cupola and to the 
remelting of iron found suitable by fracture-indication for the 
work to be cast, and to the separation of the casting industr}' 
from that of the blast furnace, and the establishment of foundry 
practice as a separate and distinct branch. For many years no 
castings were made at blast furnaces except plain ones for their 
own use or for rolling mills with' which they were connected. 
But since the improvements in the mixing of ores and blast- 
furnace practice, some furnacemen have again engaged in the 
casting business. This is now known as the direct casting 
process. Even with the improvements in blast-furnace practice 
and the aid of chemistry in mixing ores, the furnacemen are not 
always able to control the quality of iron or produce a grade 
suitable for castings the molds for which have been made. 
Before the quality of the metal can be determined the work is 
cast, and the castings have to be broken up in case the iron 
proves unsatisfactory, and the latter has to be run into pigs, 
sometimes for several days, before the furnace gets back into 

(7^) 



CASTINGS BY DIRECT PROCESS. 79 

its normal working condition and produces a soft even iron. 
But for certain lines of heavy castings, such as steel ingot 
molds, the direct process has proven a success, and these molds 
are regularly cast at furnaces. Aside from the liability of the 
iron to run too hard for the castings, is the trouble caused by 
kish * found in iron high in graphite, such as soft high-grade 
iron. This substance in appearance resembles flakes of black 
lead or plumbago, and is the same flaky carbon material so 
often found separating the crystals of pig iron and falling out 
when the pig is broken. It frequently separates from a cast 
of soft foundry or Bessemer iron, and floats off in the air in 
such large quantities as to cover the floor of the casting 
house. It appears to separate to a far greater extent when the 
iron is caught in ladles than when it runs through a runner di- 
rect to the pig beds in the floor of the casting house. All the 
excess of it is thrown out of the iron before cooling and does 
not appear when the iron is remelted, except in rare instances. 
But in casting by the direct process kish is a great annoyance. 
It forms cold shots, spongy porous spots in the castings, and 
floats upon the surface of the molten iron as it fills the mold, 
and gives to the top of the casting a rough, ragged appearance 
that often condemns the latter. Kish cannot be skimmed from 
the surface of the iron before pouring, and a number of gates 
devised to prevent it entering the casting and to collect it in 
the runner or gate have proved a failure, for the kish is in com- 
bination with the iron when it enters the mold and separates as 
the latter fills and the iron cools. For this reason it may be 
said that iron possessing much kish is unfit for pouring small or 
fine castings to be machined and finished. Kish seldom appears 
in iron with silicon at or below 1.5 per cent, and sulphur above 
0.30 per cent., and good sound castings can be made with such 
iron by the direct process. But iron with such a low content of 
silicon is too hard for light soft castings and can only be used 

* Kish thrown off from iron in direct casting, has lieen analyzed and found not to 
be black-lead or plumbago, although in appearance it resembles it very closely. 



80 FOUNDRY IRONS. 

for castings an inch or more in thickness. This has been the 
experience at many of the furnaces at which the direct process 
has been tried, but some of them appear to have had less trouble 
with kish than others, and turned out satisfactory small cast- 
ingi. That castings can be made cheaper by the direct pro- 
cess than the founder can remelt the iron and produce them 
is undisputed, and quite a number of ingot-mould foundries 
have been compelled to look for other work, due to direct pro- 
cess competition. In some sections foundries have refused to 
buy pig from furnaces making castings by the direct process, 
claiming they only want to sell the iron they can not use in 
the production of castings and in cutting of prices. But such a 
course would seem to be unnecessary as owing to the uncer- 
tainty of the quality or grade of iron a furnace may from day 
to day produce and the presence of kish in iron suitable for 
soft castings, the furnace men are not likely to engage in the 
general casting business. 

Oxidized Iron. — This term is applied to iron that has been 
changed from its normal condition by the action of the elements 
or by heat, and in plain terms, as applied to foundry irons, means 
rusted -and burned iron. Thin sheets of iron, such as tinned 
plate, from which the tinning has been removed, stove pipe, 
etc., may in a very short time be completely destroyed by rust 
if placed out of doors or in a damp place. Cast iron is de- 
stroyed in the same way, though not so rapidly as wrought iron 
or steel, but when exposed to the elements it becomes heavily 
coated with rust, and it too is in time completely destroyed, and 
the greater the surface exposed the more rapid the destruction. 
Rust does not affect cast iron beyond the depth or scale of it, 
and when this is removed the iron is found to be perfectly solid 
and not at all deteriorated. When cast iron heavily coated 
with rust is heated, the action of the latter upon it is similar to 
that of rusted iron scale used for annealing in malleable works, 
and extracts carbon from the iron, rendering it harder when 
melted. This hardening effect of the oxide can be prevented 
by removing the rust, which can readily be effected with small 



CASTINGS BY DIRECT PROCESS. 8 1 

scrap, by placing the latter in tumbling barrels and tumbling it 
for a short time. This cannot be so readily done with larger 
scrap, and besides the iron is not hardened to so great an ex- 
tent as is the case with small scrap, which exposes a greater 
surface, in proportion to the body of iron, to oxidation than 
heavy scrap. That the value of cast iron is decreased by rust- 
ing is well known, and pig iron that has for years lain in storage 
yards to be sold upon the warrant system, is sold at a lower 
price than new iron of the same grade. The value of scrap is 
to a still greater extent deteriorated by rusting than pig iron, for 
a far greater area of surface, in proportion to the body or weight 
of iron, is exposed to the action of the elements. For this 
reason scrap should be kept upon a dry floor under cover and 
not be permitted to lay upon the ground in the foundry yard, 
and it should be melted as soon as possible after being received 
at the foundry. Small iron more especially should not be per- 
mitted to rust, for the latter not only diminishes the quantity of 
this iron, but also the quality, for when melted with a heavy 
coating of rust upon it, its characteristics are changed to so 
great an extent that it does not mix with the same grade of 
iron from which it was cast to make a homogeneous metal. 
The quality of this iron is not at all improved by running into 
pigs and remelting. 

Oxidation of iron by heat differs from that by rust in the 
entire body of iron being deteriorated or destroyed without a 
decrease in size or an indication in the fresh fracture of the 
change that has been effected. This oxidation is caused by a 
prolonged heat, or repeated heating and cooling, as well as by 
the action of the atmosphere and products of combustion upon 
the iron, and may take place when the iron is enclosed in a fur- 
nace, as, for instance, as retorts, or heated in the open air as 
grate bars. In either case the oxidation of the iron is complete 
if the heating is sufficiently prolonged. This form of oxidation 
cannot be removed the same as rust so that a good quality of 
iron is still left, but the iron has to be melted in combination 
with its oxide. The effect of the oxide is to destroy the strength 
6 



82 FOUNDRY IRONS. 

and softness of the iron, the latter when separated from it b}' 
melting being always hard and brittle. The extent to which the 
strength and softness of the iron are affected varies with the ex- 
tent to which it has been oxidized, as does also its action when 
melted. A very badly burned iron when melted in a cupola 
produces a very fluid slag which flows from the tap hole like 
iron and in combination with the iron the oxide contained. As 
the slag cools the excess of iron it is not able to hold, the latter 
separates and sinks to the bottom, and the more slowly the slag 
is cooled the greater the per cent, of iron recovered from it will 
be. The greater the per cent, of iron the burned iron contain.s 
the more readily it will separate from the slag, and when not too 
badly burned may separate from it in the cupola or be skimmed 
from the ladle, the slag retaining but a very small per cent, of 
iron, and the iron cannot be poured into castings if the oxide is 
in excess. That an iron has been oxidized by heat is not al- 
ways indicated in the fresh fracture. In fact, the latter almost 
invariably indicates a fine grade of soft iron ; nor is the outward 
appearance always an evidence of oxidation by heat, and it is 
frequently only by the shape of the casting, or a knowledge of 
the use to which it has been put, that an iron oxidized by heat 
can be detected. Oxidized iron when remelted always produces 
a harder and weaker iron than that from which it was cast, and 
in extreme cases of oxidation a very hard, brittle iron that does 
not mix readily with others so as to make a homogeneous metal. 
Such iron should not be mixed with others for soft castings, and 
it is only fit for an inferior grade of castings even when but 
slightly oxidized, and for weights when badly oxidized. 

Sandwiched Hard Spots. — The writer first met with this iron 
at Albany, N. Y., in 1876. At that time the stove foundries 
in that cit}' and vicinity were melting Lehigh Valley irons, 
which for a long time had been their leading stock and given 
good satisfaction in their plate. However, without any change 
whatever in fracture indications or general appearance, the iron, 
although still soft and strong, began to run hard in spots. 
Upon investigation he found that the hard spots were not those 



CASTINGS BY DIRECT PROCESS. 83 

of ordinary hard iron, extending through the casting, but that 
the hard iron was inside of the soft iron with a well-defined line 
between the tvv'o. In very light plate the hard iron was found 
in a thin plate between two thicker plates of soft iron on the 
outside, and he gave it the name of sandwiched iron from the 
hard iron lying between the plates of soft iron without being 
in any way combined with them. In the lugs and thicker parts 
of the casting it was sometimes found in small globules or ob- 
long pieces the shape of the casting. This was the form it 
took in door lugs and hinges, where it was found in drilling, but 
never in all the lugs upon the same casting. This indicated 
that it was not distributed throughout the iron, but appeared to 
float in the molten iron in small globules, which were carried 
into the mould with the iron and left where they chanced to be 
when the latter set. When the iron flowed into light plate these 
globules were carried into it and spread out in a thin plate, and 
when it ran into lugs they retained their globular shape to a 
greater extent, but never united with the soft iron by extending 
fibers into it; they frequently dropped out of the soft iron when 
it was broken. These spots appeared when only pig and remelt 
scrap were melted and none of the scrap was rusted. 

A curious feature was that the hard spots were more numerous 
when all No. i pig was melted and entirely disappeared when 
all No. 2 pig of the same brands was melted. These spots were 
afterwards traced by the furnacemen to a New Jersey ore they 
were using in their mixture to make a cheap iron, and when this 
ore was left out of their mixture the spots entirely disappeared 
from the iron. Chemists were not then employed by blast 
furnacemen, and the writer is not aware that the element or 
metalloid in the ore that caused the hard spots has ever been 
determined, but they were probably due to a small per cent, of 
titanium. Since that time he has frequently met with these spots 
in castings, but has never been able to trace them to the pig 
melted, although in some cases the fresh fracture of the pig was 
badly spotted with patches of very small light-colored crystals 
indicating a harder iron than the main body. These spots 



84 FOUNDRY IRONS. 

never appeared in the castings as a separate iron, and either dis- 
appeared when the iron was melted or appeared throughout the 
castings as a harder iron, or as hard spots extending through 
the casting and connected by fibres to the softer iron. In other 
cases where they were found they were traced to scrap melted 
with the pig, and the writer has produced spots in stove plate 
exactly like those found at Albany, by melting badly burned 
iron with soft stove-plate pig, and has also produced them by 
melting badly rusted shot-iron with this pig. Attempts made 
to produce them with wrought iron and steel scrap failed, these 
metals hardening the iron throughout or appearing in hard spots 
combined with the soft iron. Sandwiched spots are never found 
when a close or hard iron is melted with burned iron or rusted 
shot, but they appear when it is melted with a high-carbon soft 
iron, and they are probably due to the failure of the oxidized 
iron of the burned and rusted shot to mix with this iron. 

Sandwiched hard spots differ from other hard spots in being 
separate and distinct from the soft iron in which they are en- 
closed, while in other hard spots the hard and soft iron blend 
together and may be due to uneven pig, wrought iron, steel, or 
other scrap in the mixture that does not mix well with the pig 
or other irons with which they are melted. They may also be 
due to wet sand, uneven and hard ramming, chill, etc. 

Sash Weight Metal. — The only properties required in sash 
weights are weight and sufficient strength to stand shipment and 
handling. They may be cast as over iron at the last of a heat 
or from any old scrap thrown into the cupola at the latter end 
of a heat as is frequently done. But in regular sash weight 
foundries, they are cast from any old metal that can be pur- 
chased at a low price, such as blast furnace scrap, pig that has 
been condemned for any other casting, old cast-scrap, burned 
iron, shot iron, malleable scrap, wrought scrap, steel scrap, tin 
scrap, steel wire, sheet iron, tin cans, gas pipe, galvanized iron, 
tin roofing, horse shoes, and, in fact, any old metal that is of 
little or no use for anything else. These metals are mixed so 
as not to get a sufficient quantity of any one kind that is more 



CASTINGS BY DIRECT PROCESS. 85 

difficult to melt than another in one place or charge and clog 
the cupola, and a little cast iron, if at hand, is distributed 
through the heat. This melts more rapidly than the other 
metals, tends to keep the cupola working more open and free, 
and also to give life to the other metals when melted. This 
metal sets very rapidly after being drawn from the cupola and 
therefore requires to be melted very hot, and handled very 
quickly to run the weights. It is the practice to use large gates 
and runners, or construct a basin, and dump the metal right in 
so that the mold may be filled as quickly as possible. 

This metal may be melted in any ordinary cupola and is 
sometimes melted after the regular heat of cast-iron has been 
melted without any bad effect upon the iron in this or the fol- 
lowing heat. But as the metal is very hard, separate ladles should 
be used for it or the ladles newly daubed throughout for every 
heat to prevent small particles of iron from adhering to the 
ladle and hardening the soft iron. An extra amount of fuel is 
required to melt this metal hot, and the average melting is 
about three pounds of metal to one of fuel. To increase the 
fuel the weight of the charges of it should be permitted to re- 
main the same as for cast iron, and the weight of the metal in 
each charge be decreased until a hot metal is secured. 

Sash weight metal of this kind is neither a cast iron, wrought 
iron, or steel, but a mixture of all of them, and a product that 
is very hard and brittle and inferior to any one of the metals in 
the mixture from which it is cast. 

Temper in Cast Iron. — The melting and casting of iron im- 
part to the casting or iron when cold a certain degree of elas- 
ticity which may be called temper, but the drawing of this 
temper by heating after the casting has become cold reduces 
the elasticity of the iron and renders it more rigid and readily 
broken. This may be illustrated by the light oven plates of 
cooking stoves, ranges, etc. When new these plates, if warped 
or twisted, are readily sprung into place by the mounter, but after 
they have been heated to the degree required for baking in the 
oven, which is not even a dull red heat, become rigid and devoid 



86 FOUNDRY IRONS." 

of elasticity. This is the case with all soft cast iron, and the 
higher the temperature of the iron when cast and the more 
rapidly it sets in the mold up to a certain point, the higher the 
temper and greater the elasticity, as may be seen in the deflec- 
tion of test bars. But the reverse is the case with a hard or 
chilled iron in which elasticity is increased by annealing. This 
temper exists in all soft cast iron, but is more apparent in a 
charcoal iron than in a coke iron, and in a close or fine-grained 
iron than in an open one. For many lines of castings, temper 
in iron is of no consequence whatever, but for others it is of 
greet importance, and the drawing of it by heating or annealing 
renders the casting useless for the purpose for which it is de- 
signed. This is the case in all castings requiring a certain 
amount of elasticity or spring, such as that required in steam 
cylinder packing rings. To draw the temper from cast iron 
does not require a high or prolonged heat, as in annealing to 
soften or remove shrinkage strain, but it may be drawn by heat- 
ing in turning up a light casting in a lathe with a high speed 
tool steel, or a dull low speed tool. This has been repeatedly 
shown to be the case in turning up cylinders from which small 
light automobile packing rings were to be cut. In this case 
the rings cut from the end of the cylinder, at which the sharp 
tool was started, had the desired elasticity and spring, while 
those from the other end, which had become heated by a high 
speed or dull tool, possessed no spring whatever, and were per- 
fectly useless as packing rings. When the temper in cast iron 
has once been drawn, it cannot be returned to it by any known 
process, except that of remelting and casting, for it is imparted 
to the iron by the formation of the crystalline structure when 
it sets and cools. The heating of it changes the formation of 
the crystals to the extent of removing the strain upon them, 
that gives to the iron the desired temper or spring. 

Automobile Cylinder Packing Rings. — One of the most dif- 
ficult irons to produce is a satisfactory one for automobile cyl- 
inder packing rings, and probably more experimenting has been 
done in the production of this iron than in that for any other 



CASTINGS BV DIRECT PROCESS. 8/ 

casting made in recent years. These rings are very light and 
require a certain amount of spring that is difficult to procure in 
turned and finished cast iron. Probably every brand of iron in 
this country known to possess peculiar characteristics has been 
tried, and irons have been imported from other countries for 
these castings with no better results than with the home product. 
Besides the various irons possessing distinct characteristics and 
mixtures of them, all the known elements in metal that give to 
iron elasticity and spring have been added to molten iron in the 
ladle in endeavors to obtain a satisfactory ring. One of the 
most expensive of these elements or metals to be tried was 
vanadium. This metal has been added to iron to the extent of 
the cost of forty dollars per ton of iron with very satisfactory 
results in the ring obtained from this alloy, but with no more 
•certainty of results than from mixtures of iron without the 
vanadium, for it has been found that only under certain un- 
determined conditions does vanadium enter into combination 
with cast-iron to give to it this desired characteristic. The work 
done in this direction has therefore been largely experimental, 
and I am not aware that this metal or alloy has been adopted by 
any of the automobile foundries for these rings. The metal 
generally used for them is a mixture of strong Lake Superior 
iron, ten to twenty per cent, steel, and in some cases, ten to 
twenty percent, charcoal iron. This mixture, which is the same 
as that made for the cylinders, gives, when containing the proper 
amount of silicon and carbon to insure its being soft, the re- 
quired amount of elasticity and strength for the rings, provided 
the temper is not drawn from the casting by heating in turning 
and finishing. 



CHAPTER VII. 

Foundry Chemistry. 

Historical Data — There appears to be no record of the first 
introduction of foundry chemistry, which is probably due to the 
fact that the first attempts in this direction were experimental 
and more or less of a failure. But the writer knows of these 
attempts having been made as early as 1877, the first work in 
this line having been done by car-wheel foundries with a view 
of getting a more satisfactory chill on their wheels. In 1878, 
Doctor Dudley, the chemist of the Pennsylvania Railroad Com- 
pany, took up the subject and made a number of analyses of the 
pig used in the car-wheel fou-ndry of the railroad in Altoona, 
Pa., as well as of the car wheels made therefrom. 

For some time prior to this date, cold-blast charcoal iron, 
from which car wheels had long been made, was becoming 
scarce, and a mixture of anthracite and coke irons with steel 
had been substituted for it for car wheels at many of the car- 
wheel plants. The employment of chemists was for the pur- 
pose of determining the suitability of this mixture for wheels, 
and also the per cent, of steel that should be used with various 
brands and grades of pig. For this work, chemists who had 
had some experience in steel works were generally employed. 
In 1879 some of the larger foundries fitted up laboratories for 
general foundry work, and employed chemists v/ho had been 
engaged in blast furnace work, so that the chemistry of foundry 
irons may be said to date from this year, and to have now been 
practiced about 31 years. From 1879 on, progress was so slow 
that it was not until 1882 that the prediction was made in print 
that the time was coming when pig iron would be sold by chem- 
ical analysis instead of by fracture, the method in vogue at that 
time, and it was not until 1890 that this prediction was realized, 

(88) 



FOUNDRY CHEMISTRY. 89 

and not until 1895 that chemists were to any great extent em- 
ployed by foundrymen. About 1900, the American and vari- 
ous local foimdrymen's associations took up the matter and 
every facility was afforded to chemists to make foundry chem- 
istry a success. That the results obtained from these oppor- 
tunities afforded have been a disappointment to the founder 
is undisputed, for castings made from anthracite and coke- 
smelted irons possess no greater transverse or tensile strength 
than those made from them before chemistry was introduced, 
and work is cast with no more certainty, as to hardness, soft- 
ness, or strength of castings than was formerly done by fracture 
indications, or may be done at the present time from blast fur- 
nace analysis, furnished with each car of iron from the furnace, 
or from fracture indications. While the car-wheel founder may 
have derived some benefit from chemistry in making mixtures of 
steel and cast iron for car wheels, the soft-iron foundry may be 
said to have gained nothing. The blast furnace chemist by 
analysis of ores before smelting them has been able to predict 
the quality of iron these ores will produce when mixed and 
smelted in certain proportions with the furnace working in its 
normal condition, and by analysis of fuel and fluxes has been 
able to produce this condition in a furnace to a far greater ex- 
tent than formerly. The steel chemist has been able to produce 
from coal- and coke-smelted irons a steel equal to that obtained 
from charcoal-smelted iron, and for many purposes one superior 
to it. But the foundry chemist has not been able to produce 
from these irons one having the well-known and desirable char- 
acteristics of a hot-blast charcoal iron for light soft castings, nor 
one having the strength and desirable characteristics of a cold- 
blast charcoal iron for cylinders, etc., or one having the strength 
and chilling properties of this iron for car wheels. Thus the 
chemistry of foundry irons would be of little interest to the 
founder were it not that blast-furnace chemistry has made such 
progress that foundry irons are generally sold by analysis and 
foundry mixtures are to a greater or less extent made by these 
analyses in almost every foundry. New discoveries of metal- 



90 FOUNDRY IRONS. 

loids and their effect upon cast iron are being from time to time 
made, and the chemist may yet develop a means of improving 
the quaHty of foundry irons. 

The Metalloid Theory. — The chemistry of foundry iron when 
first introduced, and up to the present time, is based upon a 
knowledge of the per cent, of the various metalloids cast iron 
may contain, and the ways or formulas for mixing iron con- 
taining a known per cent, of various metalloids to produce a 
desired quantity of iron for work to be cast. This theory, 
while it may be correct, has not yet been carried far enough to 
prove it so or to be of any great advantage to the founder. If 
the metalloid theory is correct, it is no doubt due to the fact that 
all the metalloids that may be contained in a cast iron are not yet 
known and their effect upon the iron and upon each other, when 
melted together in mixtures of the various brands and grades of 
cast iron, has not yet been determined, and probably for this 
reason, all the theories of the effect of the known metalloids 
upon cast iron have been contradicted in actual practice. 
Many metalloids have been analyzed for and found in cast 
iron, but only five of them have been deemed of sufficient 
importance to be considered in formulating a standard anal- 
ysis for the sale of foundry irons. These are: Silicon, car- 
bon, manganese, phosphorus and sulphur. Silicon is said to be 
a softener and controller of carbon in iron, and to increase the 
free carbon and its softening effect ; manganese to have a 
hardening and strengthening effect; phosphorous to give fluid- 
ity ; and sulphur to be a deteriorator in all irons. A mixture of 
coke irons for stove plate requires from 2.50 ro 3.00 per cent, 
silicon to produce a soft plate, yet a softer and stronger plate 
can be made from hot blast charcoal iron containing only 1.50 
per cent, silicon, and a cold blast charcoal iron is well known to 
be a superior metal as regards strength to a coke iron contain- 
ing a less, equal, or greater per cent, of silicon, which would 
seem to indicate that carbon, and not silicon, is the true softener 
and also strengthener of cast iron. 

Irons are generally considered to lose from 0.25 to i .00 per 



FOUNDRY CHEMISTRY. 9 1 

cent, of their silicon depending upon the per cent, of it they 
may contain, when melted in a cupola, yet it has been proved 
by numerous tests that the silicon actually increased in iron 
when melted in this way. Manganese, which is claimed by 
chemists to have a hardening and strengthening effect upon cast 
iron, and is extensively employed by car wheel foundries to 
harden their car wheel mixtures and increase depth of chill, 
is also used by soft iron founders in ladles and cupolas to 
produce an exactly opposite effect, /. c, for softening and 
strengthening their iron. The fluidity-giving property of phos- 
phorus is in charcoal iron almost entirely replaced by carbon, 
as very little of this element is found in it, and it may be run 
into the lightest of castings. Sulphur which in any proportion is 
generally considered to have an injurious effect upon iron has 
been used^ and desired in mixtures to as high as one per cent, 
in the castings. 

The writer's attention was recently called to a mixture made 
by a practical foundr)' chemist in charge of a foundry in which 
all these five important elements were determined and a mix- 
ture made by analysis for soft castings, but all of them were 
found to be too hard to be machined. An investigation showed 
that a new brand of iron placed in the mixture contained titan- 
ium in sufficient quantities to harden the entire mixture. It 
may thus readily be seen that the results indicated by analysis 
may be entirely destroyed by the presence of known metalloids 
not analyzed for, or by metalloids, the presence and effect of 
which have not yet been determined as in the case of high 
sulphur producing a desirable casting. That the metalloid 
theory has not yet been developed to a sufficient extent to give 
a certainty in resultant mixtures of various brands and grades 
of iron is very evident from the many failures to produce iron 
of a desired quality from mixtures by analysis alone. Whether 
this can be done with certainty and at such a cost, which must 
necessarily be greater than at present, as will warrant the 
founder in adopting chemistry as his sole guide, has yet to be 
shown. The low silicon and greater transverse and tensile 



92 . FOUNDRY IRONS. 

strengths in hot and cold blast charcoal irons as compared with 
coke irons, is undoubtedly due to the different form carbon has 
assumed in the charcoal iron, while the reverse effect of man- 
ganese in car wheel and soft mixtures is probably caused by 
the presence of charcoal iron and steel in the car wheel mix- 
tures and change of the form of carbon in the mixture by these 
metals. 

Can the metalloid theory effect this change in the carbon of 
an iron either in the blast furnace or cupola and increase the 
strength and other desired qualities in a cast iron? It has not 
yet succeeded in doing so, and at the present time gives no 
indication of being able to raise the standard of cast iron above 
that which it had reached before the introduction of blast fur- 
nace or foundry chemistry. With our present knowledge of 
metalloids the limit appears to have been reached on the 
metalloid theory, and before any improvement can be made 
with a certainty of results in the quality of cast iron or even in 
that of the various brands and grades mixed, more metalloids 
must be sought for and their effect upon the iron accurately 
determined. If this cannot be done then resort must be had to 
the furnace, as in the manufacture of steel, before the standard 
of cast iron can be raised or it can be cast with a certainty of 
quality desired. 

Furnaces. — In making mixtures upon the metalloid theory, 
the cupola furnace should answer the purpose equally as well 
as the blast furnace in producing iron of the desired quality 
when smelted with its ores, for this furnace melts iron rapidly 
and does not remove from or place metalloids in the iron when 
melted with a proper fuel within the melting zone. If it is only 
a question of manipulation of metalloids to obtain an iron of 
the desired quality probably no better furnace could be de- 
signed then the cupola, and if the theory is correct the 
desired results will be obtained from this furnace when the 
effects of various metalloid'' are more fully understood, so that 
the failure to obtain results indicated by analysis cannot be 
attributed to cupola melting. But if metalloids are to be 



FOUNDRY CHEMISTRY. 93 

added to, or taken from, the iron, this furnace is not at all 
suitable, for the iron melts so quickly, and when melted drops 
to the bottom so rapidly, that it cannot be changed during 
this process. After melting, the metal in the bottom of "the 
furnace is so inaccessible for any treatment whatever in a 
molten state that mettalloids can neither be added to nor 
taken from it. The only means suggested for effecting the 
change in the quality of iron in this furnace is by charging the 
blast with various chemicals or elements. This has been re- 
peatedly tried, but the volume of blast required to melt iron in 
a cupola is so great that it is impossible to charge it to a suffi- 
cient extent to effect a change in the iron, and in every instance 
where this has been tried it has proved a failure and been 
abandoned. Another means suggested for improving the qual- 
ity of iron by adding to or taking from it metalloids is the 
use of the tank or reservoir cupola. This has also been tried ; 
but before the desired change can be effected the molten iron 
becomes too dull to run the work and no means have as yet 
been devised of keeping it hot or superheating it in the reser- 
voir. So that if a change in the quality of an iron is to be 
effected during the process of melting, or while the iron is 
in a molten state, an entirely new furnace must be designed 
that will admit of these changes being accomplished at a 
moderate cost. 

Steel Furnaces. — In the manufacture of steel and steel cast- 
ings a number of furnaces and converters of different designs 
are used in which metalloids may be removed from the iron, 
and replaced by others to produce the quality of steel desired. 
Some of these furnaces have been tried by founders for im- 
proving the quality of iron, but in every instance that has come 
under the writer's notice, the foundry has either drifted into a 
steel foundry, or the furnace been abandoned as not practical, 
or too expensive for cast iron, so that nothing has yet been ac- 
complished in this direction in the way of improving the quality 
of foundry iron. That ordinary cast iron is superior to steel 
for many purposes, is shown by the well-known fact that cast 



94 FOUNDRY IRONS. 

iron pipe lasts much longer under ground than steel pipe, that 
steel street railway crossings and turnouts have to be braced 
with cast iron to make them lasting, and that cast iron columns 
and plates are now being used for foundations and basement 
work in steel structural building, where dampness may exist, 
etc. A superior quality of cast iron would extend the useful- 
ness of this material to many purposes for which steel is now- 
employed, and even at an increased cost, prove better and 
cheaper in the long run. With a suitable furnace such an iron 
could no doubt be produced by removing certain metalloids 
and replacing them with others, as is done with steel, only to a 
less extent and at a less cost. Until such a furnace is designed 
and a process discovered for improving cast iron at a moderate 
cost upon a system similar to that by which steel is made, there 
is little prospect of a radical improvement in foundry iron. 



CHAPTER. VIII. 

Elements and Metalloids. 

Silicon. — This is a non-metallic infusible substance which 
forms the basis of silica, of which quartz is an example. It is, 
next to oxygen, the most abundant element in the solid part of 
the earth's crust, but it does not exist in a free or separate state 
in nature and, although so abundant, the process of obtaining it 
pure is too expensive to admit of its being used in the arts 
and it is only seen as a rare curiosity in the laboratory or mu- 
seum. Silicon is contained in all iron ores, and in the ashes of 
all fuels as an oxide of silica. Therefore more or less of it 
is found in all cast iron and may be alloyed with it up to 20 per 
cent, in the smelting of ores in a blast furnace and up to 95 per 
cent., it is claimed, in electric and other special furnaces. Iron 
alloyed with it to an excess loses its characteristics as such and 
the alloy may be crushed and ground to a powder and presents 
more the characteristics of quartz than of cast iron. The pres- 
ence of a small proportion of silicon impairs the strength of 
cast iron and that of large proportions renders it so brittle that 
even pig iron has to be handled with care to avoid breaking, as 
exemplified in what is known as silvery and silver-gray pig. It 
is claimed that with the increase or decrease of the per cent, of 
silicon in cast iron, the free or combined carbon increases or 
decreases, and the presence of silicon is necessary if the iron is to 
be used for ordinary casting purposes as these two elements give 
it its fluidity and without them it could not be cast. This theory 
is correct only uj) to a certain point. A white-hard iron con- 
tains only from one-half to one per cent, of silicon, sets ver}^ 
quickly in a ladle, and it is only when it is very hot that it can 
be poured from the ladle to leave a clean skull. 

(95) 



96 FOUNDRY IRONS. 

With an increase of silicon in an iron the free carbon or 
graphite increases and with up to from 3 to 4 per cent, silicon, 
molten iron becomes more fluid and holds its life longer. After 
this point is reached the fluidity of the iron and also its strength 
decrease as silicon is increased, and a 10 per cent, silicon iron 
does not hold its life any longer than with one-half to one per 
cent, and can only be run into castings when very hot. So that 
this theory is only correct up to a certain point, and this point 
should not be exceeded in castings when making mixtures. 
Silicon is so unevenly distributed in pig iron that it is almost 
impossible to obtain exactly the same analysis from different 
parts of the same pig or cast of pig, and it is only by making 
a number of determinations and taking the average that the per 
cent, of silicon the iron may contain can approximately be 
determined. By this method anthracite and coke foundry pigs 
have been found to contain about the following per cent, of 
silicon in the various grades : 

No. 5 White Iron, 0.50 per cent. 

No. 4 White Iron, i .00 per cent. 

No. 3 Mottled Iron, 1.50 per cent. 

No. 2 Plain Iron, 2.25 per cent. 

No. I Plain Iron, 2.50 per cent. 

No. 2 X Iron, 3.00 per cent. 

No. I X Iron, 3.50 per cent. 

Silvery Pig Iron, 4 to 6 per cent. 

Fcrro-Silicon Iron, 6 to 10 per cent. 

In making mixtures of these irons by analysis, the founder 
should aim to get about the following per cent, of silicon in his 
irons for the various grades of castings : Heavy machinery 
castings requiring to be strong and dense, 0.50 to i per cent.; 
light machinery castings 2 to 2.50 per cent.; stove plate, 
bench work, etc., 2.50 to 3 per cent. This represents the 
amount of silicon in castings that has been found by actual test 
best suited for the various grades. In making mixtures to ob- 
tain these results, an allowance of one-quarter of one per cent, 
in the low silicon irons to one-half of one per cent, in the 



ELEMENTS AND METALLOIDS. 97 

high siHcon irons should be made for loss of silicon in melting. 
The two or three grades of iron containing nearest the amount 
of silicon desired in a casting should be used in the mixture, 
for this gives a more even quality of iron in the castings than 
the melting together of the extremely high and low silicon irons 
to obtain the desired per cent, of silicon. 

Charcoal Pig. — The following table shows the average per 
cent, of silicon found in the various grades of charcoal pig, 
which is much lower than in the same grades of anthracite 
and coke pigs, and the iron is correspondingly cleaner and 
stronger. 

No. 5 White Iron, 0.22 per cent. 

No. 4 Mottled Iron, 0.35 per cent. 

No. 3 Close Iron, 0.55 per cent. 

No. 2 Soft Iron, 0.95 per cent. 

No. I Soft Iron, 1.95 per cent. 

These irons are graded up as far as No. 8 ; the silicon in the 
the higher grades varies from a mere trace to 0.20 per cent., 
and the iron is very hard, solid, and strong, while the very low- 
anthracite and coke silicon irons are frequently honey-combed, 
hard, and brittle, and only fit to be put back into the furnace to 
have their silicon increased. 

The higher grades of charcoal irons are used in mixtures for 
car wheels, chilled plows, and other chilled castings to give the 
desired depth of chill and strength to the castings, in mixtures 
with scrap and coke irons, and also for malleable castings to 
give the desired quality of iron and per cent, of silicon for an- 
nealing. In making mixtures for heavy machinery castings 
Nos. 3 and 4 irons are used; for light machinery castings Nos. 
2 and 3, and for stove plate, bench work, and light castings, 
Nos. I and 2. But these irons are so scarce at the present time 
that they are seldom used by themselves for anything but special 
castings and are generally mixed with anthracite and coke irons 
to give strength or chilling properties to them. In such case 
special mixtures are made with local brands of pig or scrap that 
have been found by actual test to give the desired quality of 



98 FOUNDRY IRONS. 

iron in the castings, and as the per cent, of siHcon varies with 
the purpose for which the castings are designed no special 
amount of siHcon or mixture of irons can be given. 

Silicon Lost ill Melting. — When pig iron is melted in a cu- 
pola it becomes a harder iron even when cast into pigs of the 
original size, and every time it is remelted it becomes still 
harder, this hardening being due to the burning-out of silicon 
and graphite carbon, and the combining of carbon with the 
iron. The per cent, of silicon lost or removed from the iron 
each time it is melted varies with the per cent, of silicon the iron 
may contain before melting. This loss has been found by actual 
test in cupola practice to vary from one-fourth of one per cent, 
in a one per-cent. silicon pig to one per cent, in a six per-cent. 
silicon pig, when the iron is properly melted within the melting 
zone. But this loss may be greatly increased by improper 
melting, and the writer has known of as high as one and a-half 
per cent, of silicon being lost from a three and a-half per-cent. 
silicon iron in the process of melting. This heavy loss was occa- 
sioned by the use of too large a quantity of fuel, and by the 
iron being held upon the upper edge of the melting zone at a 
temperature just below the melting point until the excess of fuel 
was burned away to a sufficient extent to permit the iron to 
come within the melting zone and be melted. The iron when 
melted came down slow and hot, but did not hold its life very 
long, and was too hard for the work to be cast, although the 
mixture charged should have produced a very soft iron. Analy- 
sis showed a loss of one and a-half per cent, of silicon and a 
corresponding loss of graphite carbon. This same mixture, 
when properly melted with less fuel, produced an iron too soft 
for the work, and scrap had to be added to take up the excess 
of silicon in the pig. The average loss of silicon in melting a 
three per-cent. silicon pig together with the daily remelt from the 
foundry or with old scrap when the remelt is not heavy, has been 
estimated to be from one-half to one per cent. The common 
practice is to determine the per cent, of silicon which will give the 
desired degree of hardness or softness in the casting, and make 



ELEMENTS AND METALLOIDS. 99 

a mixture that will give this amount after allowing one-half of 
one per cent, for loss in melting. With the low-silicon pig one- 
fourth of one per cent, is allowed. Very high-silicon pig is so 
seldom melted by itself, or with its own remelt scrap, that no 
accurate determination has been made of the loss of silicon in 
melting, but it has been estimated to be from one to three per 
cent. In melting this iron as a softener, with promiscuous old 
scrap, so little can be determined as to the per cent, of silicon 
in the scrap that no estimate can be made of the loss of silicon, 
and as regards the per cent, of high-silicon pig he should use 
in his mixture the founder must be guided by results as indi- 
cated in his castings. 

Silicon as a Flux. — Silicon acts as a flux upon cast iron when 
absorbed b)- it and well distributed in it up to about 3.50 per 
cent. ; a little beyond this point it begins to make molten iron 
look thick and mushy, although it frequently flows more fluid 
than its appearance would indicate to the experienced founder. 
But as the silicon increases, the fluidity of the iron decreases 
and a very high silicon iron has no more life than a white 
iron, and only when very hot can it be run into light cast- 
ings. Numerous attempts have been made to use silicon in 
its native forms as a cupola flux and softener, but it has not 
been found practicable to have the iron take up silicon in a cupola 
from fluxes and fuel as is done in blast furnace practice. In 
numerous experiments made in this direction by the writer no 
practical results were obtained although the charges of fuel and 
iron were varied to correspond as nearly as possible to the in- 
creased and decreased burden in furnace practice, and the vol- 
ume of blast was also varied. In these experiments some little 
increase was effected in the silicon and a softer and more fluid 
iron was produced, but as the same results could, at a less ex- 
pense, be obtained by melting the low silicon iron used in the 
experiments with a higher silicon iron, the process used was not 
practical. Ferro-silicon has to a considerable extent been tried 
as a cupola flux and softener, but this also has proved a failure, 
owing to the fact that the iron did not absorb a sufficient quan- 



lOO FOUNDRY IRONS. 

tity of silicon to justify the expense of the ferro-silicon. Up 
to the present time the only siUcon found practicable to use as 
a cupola flux, is that in combination with the carbonates of lime, 
such as limestone, shells, etc., and these are of more benefit in 
keeping the cupola working open and free in long heats than in 
improving the quality of iron. 

Fcj'ro-silicon as a Softejier in Ladles. — Ferro-silicon has been 
recommended for use in ladles as a softener of iron and quite 
extensively sold for this purpose. When first introduced it was 
in the shape of small lumps or gravel, but it was slow to melt, 
and before it was melted and absorbed by the iron the latter 
frequently became too dull for pouring. To overcome this dif- 
ficulty, the ferro-silicon was ground to a course powder. In 
this shape it was more rapidly melted and the silicon taken up 
by the iron, but it still required considerable time and heat from 
the iron to melt it. It has been found that only a limited amount 
of silicon can in this way be added to iron before the iron be- 
comes too dull for pouring, or assimilates the silicon to give 
an even, sound casting. But with very hot iron and a good- 
sized ladle of it, a sufficient amount of silicon has by the use of 
ferro-silicon been placed in it to soften it to a considerable ex- 
tent, but not sufficiently so for making. a soft iron out of a white 
hard iron. Of course no founder desires to depend upon this 
method of obtaining a soft iron for his entire heat, but when a 
few castings are to be made that require to be softer than the 
iron of the regular heat, this method of softening answers very 
well, and many founders keep ferro-silicon on hand for this 
purpose. The quantity of ferro-silicon that gives the best re- 
sults in a ladle is a matter that has probably never been de- 
termined, and while one manufacturer of the material claims 
that a 50 per cent, ferro-silicon gives the best results, another 
claims a 90 per cent, ferro-silicon to be the best for this pur- 
pose. The per cent, of the silicon that may be taken up by the 
iron from either of these ferro-silicons depends first upon the 
heat of the iron in the ladle, for a hot iron will absorb more 
than a dull iron, and secondly upon the tendency of the iron to 
absorb silicon, so that no definite amount can be stated. 



ELEMENTS AND METALLOIDS. lOI 

Carbon in Iron. — Carbon is an element of great importance 
and very extensively diffused in nature. It exists in large quan- 
tities in the mineral kingdom and is the most abundant constit- 
uent of animal and vegetable matter. In the crystallized state 
it constitutes the diamond and, more or less pure, it forms the 
substances called plumbago, graphite, blacklead, anthracite and 
bituminous coal, coke, animal and vegetable charcoal. 

Carbon is the most important element in cast iron ; without it 
iron could not be cast into desired shapes nor the degree of soft- 
ness, hardness and strength required for various castings be 
given to them. Other elements, such as silicon, sulphur, etc., 
destroy to a greater or less extent the effect of carbon upon iron, 
and for this reason we do not find in coke-smelted cast iron, 
which has taken up these elements from the fuel, the same de- 
sirable characteristics as in charcoal-smelted iron, which is more 
free from them. In the manufacture of steel from coal- and 
coke-smelted irons it is the aim of the manufacturer first to re- 
move from them all the non-metallic elements and metalloids 
they may contain, and make the iron as nearly pure as possible. 
After this has been done, carbon is added to the iron to con- 
vert it into steel, and in quantities to give the latter the desired 
degree of hardness or softness for rolling, forging and temper- 
ing. Other metals are sometimes added to the steel to give it 
certain characteristics, but carbon constitutes the real steel- 
maker. With the well-known effect of carbon upon iron in the 
manufacture of steel, it is surprising that the chemistry of 
foundry irons should ever have been introduced upon the silicon 
basis with silicon as the true softener and the element to which 
all other elements in cast iron must be subservient. This was 
probably due to the researches of Prof. Turner, published in the 
year 1885, showing that the addition of silicon to a specially 
named white iron would change it to a gray iron, and that by 
varying the per cent, of it the softness and grayness could be 
controlled at will. But the professor's researches failed to show 
the now well-known fact that silicon is a delutant in cast iron, 
and while it renders it softer and more fluid, up to a certain 



I02 FOUNDRY IRONS. 

point, it also impairs its strength and other desirable qualities to 
such an extent that a 6 per-cent. silicon iron is not fit for cast- 
ing, and a 75 per cent, silicon iron, from which all the carbon 
has been removed by the silicon, presents no more of the charac- 
teristics of cast iron than a piece of rock. 

Our supply of iron is derived from ore, which is an oxide of 
iron and only in rare instances contains carbon to any great ex- 
tent. In the process of smelting in a blast-furnace oxygen is 
removed from the ore, and the iron it contains is left in the form 
of a sponge exposing a very large surface, which is acted upon 
by the gases of the furnace from which at a high temperature 
carbon is absorbed into the iron before melting. Pure iron 
cannot be melted by the heat of a blast furnace, but by the ab- 
sorption of carbon, its melting point is to so great an extent 
lowered that melting is readily effected, and thus carbon is the 
principal agent for imparting to the iron fluidity and life as a 
molten metal, and the greater the amount of it is absorbed the 
more fluid the iron will become when melted, and the longer- 
lived it will be. The amount of carbon iron may absorb 
in smelting depends upon the condition of the furnace during 
the smelting process. The greater the heat, the more carbon 
will be absorbed, and the grade of iron is controlled by varying 
the charges of fuel and ore to make the furnace work hot or 
cold; a hot furnace produces a soft foundry iron, and a cold 
furnace a white iron. Carbon when absorbed into the cast iron 
enters into combination with it up to the point of saturation 
which, in a charcoal-smelted iron, is about 4 per cent, and in an 
anthracite and coke iron 3.50 to 3.75 per cent. When iron ab- 
sorbs more carbon in the furnace than it can contain, the ex- 
cess is burned out upon exposure of the molten iron to the 
atmosphere, and a black smoke is thrown off. It is also thrown 
out as kish during the solidification of the iron, but this only 
occurs when a foreign element like silicon is present. When in 
a molten state, all the carbon an iron may contain is in combi- 
nation with it ; should it contain more carbon than it can hold 
in a combined state when cold, the excess is thrown out during 



ELEMENTS AND METALLOIDS. IO3 

the change from a molten to a solid state and held between the 
crystals of iron in thin flakes called graphite carbon. A white 
iron represents the extreme amount of combined carbon cast 
iron can hold when cold. As carbon increases the structure of 
the iron changes, the crystals become larger and the appearance 
of the fresh fracture darker, until a No. i iron is reached with 
its large crystals and dark appearance, as compared with the 
very small crystals and white appearance of a white iron. But 
this appearance can be changed to some extent by the manner 
of cooling. A white iron cooled slowly, presents a larger crys- 
tal and darker color than the same iron cooled rapidly. This is 
due to the carbon separating from the iron to a greater extent 
than when cooled rapidly and assuming the graphite state. 
The reverse is the case with the soft iron, which may be made 
a white iron by running it against the chill and cooling it sud- 
denly. In this case the carbon, which is always in combination 
with the molten iron, has not time to separate and assume the 
graphite form before the iron is too cold for it to do so. How- 
ever, this sudden cooling only effects the iron near the chill and 
for this reason we find in our car wheels a hard tread where the 
iron has been run against a chill, and a soft web and hub where 
it has been cast in the sand and the iron permitted to cool 
slowly. 

The hardness of cast iron by chilling being due to the carbon 
held in combination with the iron, the latter is not rendered 
permanently hard by sudden cooling, and the hardness may be 
removed by annealing at a sufficiently high temperature to 
permit the combined carbon to assume the graphite state and 
entirely disappear when the iron is remelted. Carbon is very 
evenly distributed in cast iron, the extreme variation in different 
parts of the same pig only being about 0.12 per cent., and it is 
only when the iron is suddenly cooled in a mold that hard spots 
in castings can be attributed to carbon. This may occur when 
the iron is run against a chill, wet sand, or hard rammed sand, 
which cools the iron so suddenly that the carbon has not time 
to assume the graphite state, but remains in combination. 



I04 FOUNDRY IRONS. 

Carbon, being lighter than iron, increases the bulk of the latter 
when combined with it and decreases its weight, whether present 
in the combined or graphite state. A cubic foot of pure iron 
weighs 489 lbs. ; one of white cast iron 474 lbs. ; one of mottled 
iron 458 lbs. ; one of gray iron 450 lbs., and one of dark gray 
or No. I foundry 425 lbs., making the difference in weight of a 
cubic foot of pure iron and a cubic foot of No. i foundry iron 
64 lbs., and that between a white iron which may be cast and a 
No. I soft iron 49 lbs. It will therefore readily be seen that a 
casting cast from white iron will be heavier than one from the 
same pattern with a No. i soft iron, and a corresponding differ- 
ence in weight will be found between castings made from the dif- 
ferent grades of foundry irons. 

In my controversy with Thomas D. West on foundry chem- 
istry in the Iron Trade Review, some years ago, and in a circular 
letter issued to the foundry trade about that time, and also in a 
paper read before the American Foundrymen's Association, 
May 29, 1900, I claimed that silicon was a foreign clement in 
cast iron and a detriment to it in any proportion and should be 
eliminated to the fullest possible extent; that carbon was the 
real softener and hardener of cast iron as in steel and the con- 
trolling element. This theory was met by the statement of 
chemists that carbon did not control silicon, but silicon did con- 
trol carbon, and therefore was the controlling element in cast 
iron. Notwithstanding this statement and its adoption by chem- 
istry, I have during the past year met quite a number of foundry 
chemists who have adopted the carbon theory, and do not an- 
alyze for silicon, or they give but little attention to it, and make 
their mixtures for hardness and softness entirely by the total 
carbon. This system has given better results than the silicon 
theory and will probably soon be generally adopted. But this 
does not fully cover the theory advocated by me, for it does not 
eliminate silicon entirely from the iron, but only as a controlling 
element in making mixtures. 

Kish in Foundry Irons. — Kish is the name given to a form of 
carbon which separates from cast iron when in a molten condi- 



ELEMENTS AND METALLOIDS. 105 

tion, and during the process of changing from a molten or 
liquid state to a solid. It is a soft, dark substance resembling 
blacklead in appearance, but analysis shows it to differ very 
materially from it. It is never seen in the foundry when only 
charcoal irons are melted, and it is only when very soft anthra- 
cite and coke irons are melted that it makes its appearance and 
then only in heavy castings that cool slowly. It separates from 
the iron when filling a mold and floats upon the surface and is 
sometimes found in thin layers or streaks on the top of cast- 
ings or in sharp corners, where it has been washed by the molten 
iron when filling the mold. It is readily removed from the cast- 
ing when cleaned, and gives to the surface a ragged or streaked, 
and to sharp corners a rounded, appearance. It is seldom seen 
in the better grades of American foundry irons when re- 
melted, but is thrown out freely from some of the brands of 
English and Scotch pig, imported into this country, and foun- 
drymen melting these irons are frequently annoyed with it. 
The formation of kish seems to be due to the presence of sili- 
con in the iron, for it is only thrown out from high-silicon pig 
when remelted. The formation of it, when melting these irons 
for soft castings, can be prevented by increasing the per cent, 
of low-silicon pig, or the per cent, of scrap in the mixture to 
an extent that will absorb the excess of silicon in the resultant 
mixture and still give a soft iron. It can also be prevented by 
the addition of steel scrap to the mixture and a stronger cast- 
ing thus be made. But when this scrap is used the iron should 
be melted very hot, tapped into a large ladle and thoroughly 
stirred to obtain an even iron in the casting. Even when this 
is done hard spots may be found if the castings are light, and 
better results are obtained from adding low silicon-pig, or cast 
iron scrap. Kish does not separate to so great an extent from 
irons when remelted, as when castings are made by the direct 
process from a blast furnace. When this is done, the iron is 
caught direct from the furnace in ladles, holding as high as 50 
tons, and a large surface of molten metal is thus exposed to the 
atmosphere. From this surface kish separates and floats off in 



I06 FOUNDRY IRONS. 

the air to such an extent that it may be gathered up by the 
handful in the casting house and everything in a foundry is 
covered with it as with dust. It also separates from the cast- 
ings in the molds and floats to the surface. This separation of 
it occurs from irons containing as low as one and a-half to 
two per cent, silicon, while in the foundry it is seldom seen 
when melting iron with less than three to three apd a-half per 
cent silicon. This is said to be due to the iron being softer 
when cast by the direct process than when remelted, but is 
probably also somewhat due to the large surface of molten iron 
exposed to the atmosphere in the ladle, as kish is not seen to 
so great an extent when the same grade of iron is run direct 
from the furnace into the pig bed of the casting house. 

Manganese and Invi. — Metallic manganese was discovered 
by Scheele and Gahn, in 1774, and is obtained from the native 
black oxide or ore by intense ignition with charcoal. When 
pure, it is of a grayi§h-white color, brittle and very hard, being 
capable of cutting glass and scratching the hardest tempered 
steel. It is susceptible of the most perfect polish and is not 
altered even in moist air at ordinary temperatures. With oxy- 
gen it forms five compounds, three regular oxides and two 
acids. 

It is found in combination with iron in iron ores and may be 
alloyed with it up to 40 per cent, in the blast furnace and to 90 
per cent, in the electric furnace. When in combination up to 40 
per cent, the iron is called " spiegel iron " (German for mirror 
iron), owing to the mirror-like appearance of the fresh fracture. 
When alloyed above the point of spiegel it is termed ferro- 
manganese and the fresh fracture loses its mirror-like appear- 
ance, is more granular, softer, and is often beautifully stained 
with rainbow colors due to superficial oxidation. 

The effect of manganese upon cast iron is to increase combined 
carbon, to decrease silicon, and eliminate graphite carbon and 
sulphur. Its tendency is, therefore, to harden cast iron, 
although in quantities only sufficient to eliminate sulphur it 
has a softening effect. Beyond this point it forms a double 



ELEMENTS AND METALLOIDS. lO/ 

carbide of iron and manganese which is very hard, and when 
diffused through the iron, hardens it. It is also claimed that 
manganese strengthens iron. This claim, like that of all other 
metalloids added to iron, is only true up to a certain point; 
and beyond this point, it has a weakening effect. With a 
low manganese and high sulphur iron, the effect of added 
manganese, either in the cupola or ladle, is a softening one due 
to the elimination of sulphur, but when this has been accom- 
plished, any excess of manganese added has a hardening effect 
due to its tendency to increase combined carbon. If the iron is 
low in sulphur at the start, the first addition of manganese will 
harden it. It will thus readily be seen that such a fine line has 
to be drawn between the hardening and softening effects of 
manganese that this metalloid is not available as a softener, or as 
a preventative of sulphur being taken up by iron from coke in 
melting for soft work. The strengthening effect of manganese 
is also offset by its tendency to convert graphite into combined 
carbon and, when added to soft iron, to harden it when re- 
melted, the only manganese available in iron for soft castings be- 
ing that alloyed with it in the blast furnace in combination 
with other desirable elements. Greater claims are made for 
manganese as a hardener and strengthener than as a softener. 
These two properties are subject to well-defined lines for 
foundry irons, and it is only when in combination in certain 
proportions with other desirable elements that manganese gives 
either of them to the iron. When thrown out of these propor- 
tions by the addition of manganese when remelted,the effect of 
the latter is so varying that it cannot be depended upon to give 
the desired degree of hardness or strength. It is only when 
the per cent, of other elements is well known, and there is a de- 
ficiency of manganese in the alloy, that it can be added with 
any degree of certainty as to results. The presence of these ele- 
ments may be learned from analysis or from practical expe- 
rience, as in melting an even grade of scrap, such as old car 
wheels, and determining by depth of chill the per cent, of man- 
ganese that should be added. Up to a certain per cent., deterni- 



I08 FOUNDRY IRONS. 

ined by the presence of other elements, manganese increases 
the depth of chill with the chilled fibres extending well into the 
softer iron. Beyond this per cent, the chill tends to sepa- 
rate with a well-defined line between the chilled and soft 
iron. Owing to these uncertainties many car-wheel founders 
refuse to add manganese or ferro-manganese to their mix- 
tures, and it is only when a large per cent, of old wheels is 
melted in the mixture that it is used to any great extent. In 
these cases a manganese ore or ferro-manganese is generally 
melted with the iron in the cupola. 

Manganese used in a ladle to add chilling properties to iron 
has been known to give with the same mixture of iron and quan- 
tity of manganese a perfectly satisfactory chill one heat, and no 
chill whatever the next one. This was attributed to the iron in 
the latter heat containing an excess of sulphur and the manganese 
entering into combination with the sulphur, for which it has a 
greater affinity than iron. 

Manganese and Ferro-manganese in a Ladle. — Ferro-man- 
ganese has to some extent been used in ladles for softening, 
hardening and strengthening foundry iron. For these purposes 
it is ground to a coarse powder and the iron drawn upon it, or 
after the ladle is filled it is placed upon the iron and stirred into 
it. In either case, so great an amount of heat is required to 
melt it that only a limited amount of manganese can be added 
to the iron before it is too dull for pouring. To overcome this 
difficulty, manganese has been cast into slabs or bars and heated 
in a forge to almost the melting point just before placing it in 
the iron. This method has given better results than the other, 
but neither one is employed to any great extent, for it has been 
found that manganese gives better results in a cupola than in a 
ladle, and car-wheel founders, who are the greatest users of it, 
prefer to apply it in this way. In a ladle, manganese has been 
found to be very uncertain in action, and according to the char- 
acteristics of the iron may harden or soften it, or should the 
iron be high in sulphur, form the sulphite of manganese and 
have no effect upon the iron whatever, except to remove sulphur 



ELExMENTS AND METALLOIDS. 1 09 

from it, and in this way soften it to a limited extent. Ferro- 
manganese or manganese can hardly be considered a softener 
of foundry irons beyond removing the hardness due to sulphur in 
the iron, for all its tendencies are to harden or strengthen iron. 
And it is more readily taken up by an iron with a chilling ten- 
dency than by a very soft iron. 

Phosphoriisin Iron. — Phosphorus is a translucent, nearly color- 
less substance resembling wax, Vv'ithout taste, but having a pecu- 
liar smell. It was discovered in 1669 by Brandt, an alchemist 
of Hamburg. It is extremely inflammable and should be kept 
under water to protect it from light. When exposed to the air 
it emits white fumes which are luminous in the dark. It may be 
obtained in two varieties, the white and red. The white in its 
pure state does not unite with iron, but the red combines readily 
with it, as does also phosphoric acid, which is to a greater or 
less extent found in all iron ores. Phosphorus exists in iron as 
iron phosphide, which has a lower melting point than iron and 
therefore separates from the latter in cooling, forming a net- 
work between the iron crystals. Its effect in consequence of 
this separation is to weaken iron when cold, and the term cold 
short iron as applied to wrought iron, meaning an iron that is 
tough and strong when hot, but brittle when cold, is said to be 
due to the presence of phosphorus in the iron and its separa- 
tion from it in cooling. As iron has an affinity for phosphorus 
and exists in combination with it in ores, it is to a greater or 
less extent found in all cast iron, and may be alloyed with it up 
to 20 per cent, in the blast furnace and to 30 per cent, in elec- 
tric furnaces. But these high-phosphorus irons are of little in- 
terest to the iron founder, as they cannot be used to advantage 
either in the cupola or ladle. The effect of phosphorus upon 
iron, it is claimed, is to impart life and fluidity to it when in a 
molten state. Attempts have been made to prove this by adding 
various per cents of phosphorus to wrought iron, white iron and 
gray iron. From these experiments there appear to be some 
grounds for this claim, for in making them it was found that the 
life of the iron was prolonged by increasing the per cent, of 



I lO FOLfNDRV IRONS. 

phosphorus, as were also the fluidity and flowing properties, and 
it is generally conceded that an iron for light soft castings should 
contain from i to 2 per cent, of phosphorus. All our better 
brands of soft foundr)- iron contain about this per cent. Phos- 
phorus has a hardening effect upon iron, but this has been found 
to be so slight in foundry irons that no special attention need 
be given to it by the founder, as no increase in depth of chill is 
caused by it. Phosphorus also has a weakening effect upon 
cast iron, but this weakening effect in foundry irons appears to 
vary with the presence of other elements and is not apparent to 
any great extent in iron containing up to 2 percent, phosphorus. 
But beyond this point the strength decreases rapidly, and a 5 
per-cent. phosphorus iron shows only about one-half the strength 
in a test-bar as one with 2 per cent, or less phosphorus. 

Sulphur in Iroi. — Sulphur is ver)- generally disseminated 
throughout the mineral kingdom; native sulphur in almost a 
pure state is found in greater abundance in volcanic countries 
and is hence called volcanic sulphur. It enters into combina- 
tion with certain metals as iron, lead, mercury, antimony, copper 
and zinc, forming compounds called sulphurets. Many of the 
iron ores contain sulphur, and also to some extent, all the mineral 
fuels with which ores are smelted, and therefore more or less of 
it is found in cast iron. The effects of sulphur on cast iron are 
to harden and weaken it, increase shrinkage and cause blow- 
holes when cast. These effects vary to some extent with the 
two forms in which sulphur exists in the iron, namely, iron sul- 
phide and manganese sulphide. Iron sulphide melts at a lower 
temperature than iron and is very fluid at the solidifying point 
of cast iron. It is claimed that the sulphur separates at this 
point, forming a gas, which, in its efforts to escape from the 
solidifying iron, forms blow-holes, and also that the low tem- 
perature at which it becomes solid causes it to separate from the 
iron when solidifying and to diffuse between the crystals, causing 
weakness and sometimes cracks in the iron. It also promotes 
the formation of iron carbide and hence has a hardening effect 
upon the iron. Manganese sulphide melts at a temperature 



ELEMENTS AND METALLOIDS. I l I 

nearer that of cast iron anci does not separate to so great an 
extent, but forms little globules in the iron, which have a weak- 
ening, and also a hardening, effect. This would indicate that sul- 
phur in either form is a detriment to foundry irons, and this is the 
general opinion of foundrymen, who always endeavor to obtain 
iron as free from it as possible, and also fuel free from it, so that 
it may not be taken up from the latter by the iron when melted. 

The writer a few years ago had a curious experience with sul- 
phur when investigating the cause of hard irons in a foundry in 
which only soft irons were melted, and hardness was only found 
in a limited number of castings. In making this investigation 
it was noticed that newly-lined ladles, although thoroughly dried 
and no boiling of iron occurred in them, when filled with iron 
the first and second time threw off a strong sulphuric odor and 
upon investigation the castings made from this iron were found 
to be harder than those cast after the ladles had been filled a 
number of times. A clay obtained from a near-by coal mine 
was used for lining ladles. In making an analysis of this cla}- 
by heating a flat iron bar to a red heat and sprinkling on it a 
thin layer of dr)- clay and heating, a strong sulphuric odor was 
thrown off, indicating that the clay was highly impregnated with 
sulphur. Sulphur taken up by the iron from this clay was un- 
doubtedly the cause of the hard iron, for when the use of it for 
daubing ladles was discontinued and a loam clay used, the hard- 
ness in castings entirely disappeared. 

Hardening Iron with Sulpliur. — Sulphur has such a harden- 
ing effect upon cast iron that iron may to a considerable extent 
be hardened by adding sulphur to it in the ladles. This is fre- 
quently done by founders requiring a hard or chilling iron for a 
few small castings, when melting only soft iron. The sulphur is 
placed in the bottom of the ladle and iron tapped upon it, or it 
may be placed upon the iron and stirred in. This method of 
hardening gives a very satisfactor}' casting when it is only de- 
sired to increase the wearing properties of the iron, as in bear- 
ings, break shoes, etc., but has not given satisfaction in castings 
that are subject to strain or jar, as the iron is rendered brittle 



I 12 FOUNDRY IRONS. 

by the sulphur, and the castings hardened in this way are 
easily broken. 

Oxygen in Iron. — Oxygen is an elementary substance uni- 
versally diffused throughout nature, it being a constituent of at- 
mospheric air, water, and most of the acids, and of all bodies 
of the animal and vegetable kingdoms, and essential to animal 
and vegetable life and to combustion. It is found in combination 
with all iron ores as an oxide and hence exists to a greater or 
less extent in all cast iron and is absorbed by it when exposed 
to the atmosphere, forming a scale upon the surface, which is 
called rust, and is an oxide of iron. The tendency of iron to 
absorb oxygen is to so great an extent increased by moisture in 
the atmosphere, and also by heat, that cast or pure iron heated 
to a high temperature in contact with oxygen for a compara- 
tively short length of time, or repeatedly heated and cooled in 
the atmosphere, loses its characteristics as an iron, and is almost 
entirely converted into an oxide, as exemplified in old retorts, 
grate-bars, fire-plates, etc. We are dependent upon the oxygen 
in the atmosphere for a supply of it for rapid combustion of 
fuel in the smelting and melting of iron, and a great deal has re- 
cently been said and written about the effects of moist and dry 
atmosphere in these operations, and also about those of hot and 
cold blast. Hot blast has been used for many years to lessen 
the amount of fuel required for smelting and to increase the 
output of iron from blast furnaces, but it is only in recent years 
that an attempt has been made to remove moisture from the 
blast for these furnaces. This has been successfully done by 
passing the air through a cold-storage plant to freeze out the 
moisture before passing it through the blast heating ovens, and 
a saving of considerable fuel has been effected in the process of 
smelting. The saving of fuel resulting from drying the blast, 
although said to be considerable in a blast furnace, would hardly 
be sufficient in a cupola to justify a foundryman in putting in a 
cold-storage plant to dry the blast for a cupola that is only in 
blast two or three hours each day, or at the utmost eight hours, 
out of twenty-four, this probably being the longest average time 



ELEMENTS AND METALLOIDS. II3 

it is in blast in ordinar}' foundry practice. The writer has not 
been able to learn of any radical improvement in foundry irons 
having been effected in a blast furnace by drying the blast. 
But even if such an improvement has been effected it is doubt- 
ful if similar results could be obtained when remelting iron in 
a cupola, because until the iron becomes heated the blast has 
no more effect upon it than the atmosphere in the foundry. 
Iron is not heated to any great extent in a cupola until it nears 
the melting zone. In a cupola melting nine tons per hour the 
iron would probably be put in in three-ton charges and each of 
these charges would be melted in 20 minutes. While the first 
charge is melting, the second charge of fuel and iron descends 
gradually into the heat zone and becomes heated. The third 
charge is so high up when the first one is melting that its fuel is 
not ignited and the iron is not heated to such an extent as to ab- 
sorb the oxygen, so that in a rapidly melting cupola the extreme 
length of time the iron would be heated to a suflficient extent 
before melting to absorb oxygen from the blast would not ex- 
ceed forty minutes, and probably not more than one-half that 
length of time. Thus the amount of oxygen the iron would 
absorb from the blast in this short length of time would prob- 
ably not be sufficient to make the removal of a few atoms of 
moisture frorn the blast by freezing a matter of any importance 
to the founder in the melting of his irons. The only time blast 
has an oxidizing effect upon iron in melting- in a cupola, that 
can be prevented by the founder, is when too great a quantity 
of fuel is used for a bed and in charging, and iron is for some 
time held on the upper edge of the melting zone at a heat near 
the melting point, while the extra fuel is being burned away to 
a sufficient extent to permit the iron to enter the melting zone 
and be melted. This can be prevented by carefully studying 
the working of a cupola and using only a proper amount of 
fuel. The effect of oxygen upon cast iron is to increase the 
combined carbon and therefore to harden it. The onh' means 
of preventing this in melting, within reach of the founder, is in 
the proper management of his cupola as just described. To 
8 



114 FOUNDRY IRONS. 

prevent hardening by oxidized iron care should be taken to 
avoid using badly oxidized material, such as burned and badly 
rusted iron, in the mixture. The effect of these irons upon soft 
iron has already been explained under the head of oxidized 
irons. 

Nitrogen in Iron. — Nitrogen is an important elementary prin- 
ciple forming about four-fifths of the atmospheric air. It is a 
colorless, odorless and tasteless gas. It is remarkable for its 
inertness compared with oxygen, hydrogen, and other elements. 

Nitrogen exists in iron in the form of nitrates and is said to 
cause weakness and brittleness. These conclusions have been 
reached from the fact that elements or materials that tend to elim- 
inate nitrogen from cast iron that has been added to it invariably 
increase the strength of it. But no way has yet been suggested 
for removing this element from iron in foundry practice, and 
until this is done the founder will have to get along with nitrogen 
as he finds it in his iron. 

Hydrogen in Iron. — Hydrogen is an element and is the 
lightest ascertained substance. It is a gas, forming one of the 
constituents of water, and of inflammable air. It is colorless, in- 
odorous and tasteless. It is inflammable, but will not support 
combustion. It does not appear to have any native place in 
iron and very little has been done in adding it to iron except in 
electrolysis, in which it is said to make electrolytic iron brittle 
to such an extent as to destroy its usefulness. 



CHAPTER IX. 

Iron and Other Metals. 

Titanium in Iron. — Titanium is an extremely infusible metal 
and so hard as to scratch not only glass, but also crystals. In 
color it resembles copper. It is found in combination with iron 
in iron ore and may be alloyed with it up to almost any desired 
per cent. Its effect upon cast iron is said to be to absorb or re- 
move oxygen and nitrogen, and thereby increase fluidity, tensile 
and transverse strengths, and resistance to shock. But its ten- 
dency to harden is so great that 0.2 per cent, of it renders iron 
too hard for light soft castings, and it is of more interest to the 
car-wheel and roll founders than to the soft iron founder, except 
for cylinders and castings requiring a close, strong iron, for 
which iron containing a fraction of i per cent, of titanium, it is 
said, may be used. Titanium is said to greatly increase the 
wearing qualities in the chill of car wheels, and car wheels made 
from iron containing it have been run over 200,000 miles with 
a wear of less than one-eighth of an inch from the tread of the 
wheel. This would seem to indicate that titanium-iron may be 
destined to become the car-wheel metal of the future. It has 
also been used for heavy shafts of steam vessels with very sat- 
isfactory results, and may in the near future entirely replace 
steel-forged shafts for this purpose. Although there are large 
deposits of titanium-iron ore in this country and Canada, as well 
as in foreign countries, titanium pig iron has not yet been pro- 
duced in sufficient quantities to place it regularly upon the 
market, and only such a small amount of it has for test pur- 
poses been made in specially constructed furnaces that its place 
as a foundry iron has not yet been fully determined. But this 
will no doubt be done before long, if it is found by those testing 

(115) 



I I 6 FOUNDRY IRONS. 

it to be better suited for any class of castings than the iron now 
being used or available for mixture with other foundry irons. 

At the present time soft iron foundries shun it, for the reason 
that a very small per cent, of titanium in regular foundry iron 
has been found to have a decidedly hardening effect when the 
iron is remelted and run into castings. 

Ferro-titaiiiuni is now manufactured and on sale for use in 
steel and foundry mixtures and the following claims are made 
for it by the manufacturers: 

Ferro-titanium in lump form is made for foundries, with lO 
per cent, to 25 per cent, titanium, so as to bring its specific 
gravity nearer to cast iron or steel. If the percentage of 
titahium is above 25 per cent, in the alloy, it is very difficult to 
alloy with iron or steel, and great losses in titanium occur. The 
specific gravity of the high-percentage titanium alloys is con- 
siderably below that of iron or steel, its tendency being to float 
right to the top and have no effect on the molten mass ; whereas 
the 10 per cent, to 25 per cent, titanium alloys more readil}', 
and without a great loss. 0.05 per cent, titanium is usually 
added, and increases the tensile strength of iron or steel won- 
derfully, and also improves the general quality. 

Titanium has a great affinity for nitrogen, and in removing 
this the steel or iron is very much purified. The physical con- 
ditions of iron are much improved. The iron becomes more 
liquified, the grain closer without the iron becoming harder. 
The iron can be worked with ease. 

Especially good effects were obtained for steam cylinders, 
pipes, and castings for hydraulic presses. To chilled iron, an 
addition of titanium seems to improve the chill, so that it with- 
stands longer wear and tear without the titanium acting as a 
hardener. Even the best iron is improved by the addition of 
a little titanium, whereas poor scrap improves 25 per cent, or 
more in strength. 

The addition of titanium can be made in the cupola, or in the 
open hearth, or crucibles. The best method to introduce it, 
however, is to melt it with a certain amount of the scrap in a 



IRON AND OTHER METALS. 



117 



separate crucible, and add this to the bulk of the iron or steel 
in a molten condition in the ladle. Titanium may be added up 
to 0.5 per cent. 

Cost of id per cent. Ferro-Titanium in 100 lbs. of Molten Iron or Steel 
Based on Cost of FERRO-TrrANiUM, #3.20 per Pound. 



Percentage of Percentage of 

Pure 10 Per Cent. Ferro- 

Titanium. Titanium to be Used. 



0.05 per 


cent. 


0.5 per cent 


0.10 




I.O " 


0.12 




1.2 " 


0.15 




1-5 


0.20 




2.0 " 


0.25 




2.5 



Quantity of 10 Per Cent. 

Ferro-Titanium Required 

for 100 Pounds of 

Molten Iron. 


Cost Per 100 
Lbs. of Iron. 


8 ounces 


16 


cents. 


I pound 


32 




I pound, 334 ounces 


38.4 




I pound, 8 ounces 


48 




2 pounds 


64 




2 pounds, 8 ounces 


80 





Cost of 20 per cent. Ferro-Titanium in 100 lbs. of Molten Iron or Steel. 



Quantity of 20 Per Cent. 
Percentage of Percentage of Ferro-Titanium Required \ Cost Per loo 

Pure 20 Per Cent. Ferro- for 100 Pounds of Lbs. of Iron. 

Titanium. Titanium to be Used. Molten Iron. 



0.05 per cent. 


0.25 per 


cent. 


4 ounces 




16 


cents. 


O.IO " 


0.5 




8 ounces 




32 




0.12 " 


0.6 




9I ounces 




38-4 




0.15 


0-75 ' 




12 ounces 




48 




0.20 " 


1.0 ' 




1 1 pound 




64 




0.25 " 


1.25 ' 




1 pound, 4 


ounces 


80 





Alnininiim and Cast Iron. — Aluminum is a silvery-white 
metal obtained from clay, is very strong and malleable, sonor- 
ous, unalterable in air and lighter than glass. The probabilit)- 
of its existence was demonstrated by the researches of Sir 



I I 8 FOUNDRY IRONS. 

Humphry Davy in the year 1808, but it was not fairly ob- 
tained until 1828, when Wohler procured it in an impure state 
in globules about the size of a pin's head. In 1854, Deville ob- 
tained the pure metal in ingots, but it was not until about 1880 
that a process was discovered which admitted of the metal being 
obtained in sufficient quantities, and at a price that permitted 
of its being used in the foundry and mechanical arts. Since 
that time, like all new metals, its use has been advocated for 
everything, and it is only within the last few years that it began 
to take its proper place among the useful metals. 

Aluminum is not found in combination with iron in any of 
the iron ores or fuels with which they are smelted, and is there- 
fore not found in cast iron. Numerous attempts have been 
made to put it into this iron in the blast furnace and cupola, 
but owing to its low specific gravity, which is only about one- 
third that of iron, and its low melting point, which is but one- 
half that of cast iron, it has been found impossible to combine 
it with the latter in either of these furnaces. But it has been 
combined with iron by melting the metals together in covered 
crucibles, and from these experiments it has been learned that 
aluminum decreases combined carbon and increases graphite 
carbon to such an extent that it is impossible to chill iron con- 
taining it, and it therefore acts as a softener. It also increases 
fluidity and strength up to about one per cent. Above this 
point it decreases strength, due to too great a softness. These 
results vary, however, with the quality of iron before the alum- 
inum is a^ded. Numerous attempts to obtain these results by 
adding aluminum to molten iron in a ladle did not prove satis- 
factory, owing to the aluminum being so light and having such 
a strong affinity for oxygen that it was not found practicable to 
have it taken up by the iron to a sufficient extent to produce 
any marked change in the latter. Ferro-aluminum has also 
been tried in ladles, but here, as with all other ferro-alloys, the 
chilling effect of the alloy upon the molten iron interfered with 
the success of the operation to such an extent that no practical 
results were obtained. At the present time aluminum seems to 
have no place in the manipulation of foundry irons. 



IRON AND OTHER METALS. II9 

Nickel in Iron. — Nickel is a white hard metal, found in 
a metallic state in meteorites. It is very ductile, hard and tena- 
cious so that a wire of it will sustain a greater weight than an 
iron wire of the same diameter. The ores of nickel are sul- 
phides, arsenides, silicates, carbonates, etc., but it is not found 
in combination with iron in any of the ores of the latter. 

Nickel has been quite extensiv^ely used in the manufacture of 
steel, and especially in the making of armor-plate, in which it is 
said to greatly increase the resisting power of the plate to 
penetration by shot. It has been found to alloy with certain 
grades of foundry iron when melted with it in a cupola and 
may to some extent be added to it in the ladle, but it has not 
yet been used to a sufficient extent to accurately determine its 
effect upon the iron. Reports of investigations of its effect upon 
these irons made by two eminent chemists and metallurgists for 
the American Foundrymen's Association, showed almost con- 
tradictory results which may probably be due to the grade and 
quality of foundry iron used. 

Reasoning from a theoretical knowledge of the two metals 
and the effect of nickel in steel, it should in iron increase the 
strength, density, tendency to take a high polish, and resistance 
to corrosion, but all these may be offset by other elements in 
cast iron which have been removed from it in converting it into 
steel, and totally different results be obtained. But even should 
these results be produced by the addition of nickel to iron, they 
m.ust be effected by a very small per cent of it, for it is far too 
expensive a metal to be added to iron in large quantities for 
ordinary castings. 

Other Metals and Cast Iron. — Very little is said or published 
by foundry chemists as to the effect of copper, bronze, tin, 
lead, zinc, and antimony upon cast iron, when alloyed with it, 
which is probably due to the fact that these metals have long 
been in the hands of foundrymen and their personal knowledge 
of them is such, that information regarding their chemical 
action or effect upon iron is not deemed necessary. The writer 
many years ago made a series of experiments in alloying these 



I20 FOUNDRY IRONS. 

metals with iron in the cupola, ladle, and crucible without ob- 
taining any very satisfactory results. In some instances the 
addition of these metals to iron in the ladle seemed to have a 
beneficial effect upon it in the castings, but this was generally 
offset by some other objectionable feature to such an extent 
that the use of the alloy was discontinued. In none of these 
tests was there sufficient improvement found in the quality of 
castings to justify the addition of any of the above mentioned 
metals to iron. Since making these experiments, the writer has 
frequently met foundrymen who had made si-milar experiments 
with the same results, so that it is quite certain that no substantial 
improvement can be effected in the quality of castings by add- 
ing any of these metals to iron, either in the cupola or the ladle. 

Untried Metals in Iron. — Tungsten, uranium, chromium, 
molybdenum, calcium, magnesium, have all been tried and to 
some extent used in the manufacture of steel, with various re- 
sults, but have not yet to the writer's knowledge been to any 
great extent tested in foundry irons and are not likely to be 
used in them as they are all rare and at the present time too 
expensive for this purpose in the production of the ordinary 
line of castings, even if found to improve their quality. 

Vanadium. — The name of this element is derived from 
Vanadis, a surname of the Scandinavian goddess Freya. It was 
discovered about a century ago in a lead ore from Zimapan, 
Mexico, by the Mexican mineralogist Del Rio. It is of a 
grayish-white color, similar to that of steel, very difficult of 
reduction, and is not oxidized by air or water. It is a very in- 
teresting element ; it belongs to the bismuth group of metals 
which also includes arsenic, nitrogen and phosphorus. It does 
not occur in a pure metallic state. Its chief ore is vanadinite 
or vanadate of lead. It is also found in other minerals and, in 
small quantities, frequently in iron ores, especiall}' in pea-ore; 
it then passes into the iron and especially into the finery cinders. 

Vanadium has thus far been so rare and difficult to obtain, as 
well as expensive, that very little is known regarding its char- 
acteristics as a useful metal. However large deposits of vana- 



IRON AND OTHER METALS. 121 

dium ores recently discovered in Colorado by Professor Hilde- 
brand of the U. S. Geological Survey, are now extensively 
worked and the metal is produced in abundance at a moderate 
price. A use for it is now being sought and, like aluminum 
when it became more plenty and cheaper, it may be recom- 
mended and tried for every purpose for which metals are used 
and require, as aluminum did, twenty-five years to find its true 
place among the useful metals. 

Vanadium at the present time is being extensively experi- 
mented with in the manufacture of steel to determine all the 
desired properties it may impart to it, and has been found to 
greatly increase the strength of this metal. It has also been 
tried to some extent in foundry irons but not sufficiently so to 
accurately determine if it can be used to advantage. 

Dr. Moldenke repo.'"ts a series of experiments in melting 
burned iron with vanadium whereby the strength was increased 
50 per cent, and the iron also softened to a considerable extent. 
But burned iron can hardly be considered a foundry iron as all 
foundrymen aim to avoid melting it for anything but sash 
weights or the commonest and cheapest kind of castings, and 
few founders would care to remelt this iron to use vanadium in 
a mixture with it. 

The Superintendent of the American Roll and P\)undr)' Co.. 
Canton, Ohio, reports having tested vanadium and found it 
entirely too expensive for use in their castings. Mr. Philip 
Smith, Sup't of the Ingersoll-Rand Co. Foundry, reports it hav- 
ing been used in their foundry at Phillipsburg, N. J. under the 
directions of an expert, with no perceptible change in the iron, 
either in hardness, softness, strength, or density, when used in 
various proportions up to a cost of $10 per ton of iron for the 
vanadium used. 

Wilson Bros., Easton, Pa., report that they contemplated the 
use of vanadium in their ladles to increase the strength and 
wearing properties of the grinding castings in their grinding 
machine. However, upon investigation they found that vana- 
dium before it was taken up b\- the iron rendered. the latter too 



122 FOUNDRY IRONS. 

dull for pouring, and that it could not be used in molten iron 
without a furnace for superheating the iron to promote the 
absorption of the vanadium after adding it, and as they did not 
care to go to that extent as an experiment, vanadium was not 
tried. 

The metallurgist of The Illinois Steel Co., at Joliet, 111., added 
vanadium to cast iron at a cost of $30 per ton of iron, and pro- 
duced an automobile cylinder packing ring that was flexible, 
could be readily sprung between the thumb and finger, and was 
superior in every way to cast iron or steel for this purpose, but 
he failed to obtain a superior iron for this or other purposes at 
a less cost per ton of iron for vanadium. Other tests of vana- 
dium have probably been made by founders but these are the 
only ones that have been brought to our attention. From these 
it would appear that vanadium, the cost of which is now about 
five dollars per pound, is entirely too expensive a metal for use 
in foundry irons for any but particular castings for which a 
special price can be obtained. Ferro-vanadium has recently 
been placed upon the market by the Primos Chemical Co., who 
give the following data in regard to it. 

Ferro-]^anadium. — /j to 20 per cent, and 20 to 2^ per cent. As 
the specific gravity of vanadium is much lower than that of iron 
or steel, the lower percentage alloys are much preferred, as 
they alloy more readily and without loss, whilst those of over 
25 per cent, are more difficult to introduce owing to their ten- 
dency to float on the top of the molten iron or steel. The 
effect of the vanadium is primarily on the oxygen and nitrogen ; 
up to 3 per cent, vanadium is added, but usually 0.05 to o.io 
per cent, is sufficient. A small percentage of nickel can be 
used to advantage in connection with vanadium. Vanadium 
increases the tensile strength very materially, the same as 
titanium. Both prevent crystallization to a great extent and 
the castings, etc., from becoming fatigued. 



IRON AND OTHER METALS. 



123 



Cost of 10 per cent. Ferro-Vanadium in ico lbs. of Molten Iron or Steel 
Based on Cost of Ferro-Vanadium, ^4.75 per Pound. 



Percentage of 

Pure 

Vanadium. 


Percentage of 

10 Per Cent. Fcrro- 

Vanadium to be Used. 


Quantity of 10 Per Cent. 

Ferro-Vanadium Required 

for ICO Pounds of 

Molten Iron. 


Cost Per ICO 
Lbs. of Iron. 


0.05 per cent. 


0.5 per cent. 


8 ounces 


23.75 cents. 


O.IO " 


I.O " 


I pound 


47-5 " 


0.12 " 


1.2 " 


I pound, 3)/^ ounces 


57 


0.15 


1.5 


I pound, 8 ounces 


71.25 " 


0.20 " 


2.0 " 


2 pounds 


95 


0.25 " 


2.5 


2 pounds, 8 ounces 


$1.1875 



Cost of 20 per cent. Ferro-Vanadium in ico lbs. of Molten Iron or Steel. 



Percentage of 

Pure 

Vanadium. 


Percentage of 
10 Per Cent. Ferro- 
Vanadium to be Used. 


Quantity of 20 Per Cent. 

Ferro-Vanadium Required 

for 100 Pounds of 

Molten Iron. 


Cost Per ICO 
Lbs. of Iron. 


0.05 per cent. 


0.25 per cent. 


4 ounces 


23.75 cents. 


O.IO " 


6.5 


8 ounces 


47-5 " 


0.12 " 


0.6 


9| ouf'ces 


57 


0.15 


0.75 " 


12 ounces 


71.25 " 


0.20 " 


1.0 " 


I pound 


95 


0.25 


1.25 


I pound; 4 ounces 


$1.1875 



Vanadium when melted with charcoal iron gives better results 
as to increase in strength than with coke iron. A low-silicon 
iron shows a greater increase in strength when melted with 
vanadium than a high-silicon iron ; the lower the silicon the 
better the results. 

Vanadium when melted in the regular foundry mixture for soft 
castings gives no increase in transverse or tensile strength. It is 
claimed to greatly increase the strength of a semi-steel mixture. 



124 FOUNDRY IRONS. 

I'anadinm in Cast Jroti. — The element of vanadium has re- 
cently received special notice by metallurgists, but has not as 
yet begun to play an important part in American foundry practice. 

It is suggested, however, that it may be one of the secrets 
behind the claim that French automobile cylinders outlast those 
cast in America. One of the features probably causing deteri- 
oration in automobile engines is the loss of compression due to 
the wearing of the cylinders. Some foreign engine castings 
have been superior to the general product in this particular. 

The American Locomotive Automobile Company has recently 
been carrying on some experiments along this line. It was 
found that American cast cylinders soon took a polish from the 
piston, but that in a short time this polished surface began to 
check and crack, resulting in a rough condition, rapid wear, and 
the loss of compression. 

Some imported Berliet cylinders were tried under the same 
conditions. These took a high polish which was practicalh- 
permanent. A careful analysis showed that the French cylin- 
ders contained a considerable percentage of vanadium. It is 
supposed, and the assumption seems reasonable, that their suc- 
cess was due to the presence of this element. — Castings. 



CHAPTER X. 
Grading Iron by Analysis. 

Pig Iron Specifications. — The American Society for Testing 
Materials adopted in 1904 the following analysis for foundry 
irons as a standard: No. i pig Si., 2.75 per cent.; S., 0.35 per 
cent.; No. 2 Iron Si. 2.25 per cent.; S., 0.45 per cent. In the 
absence of a definite understanding a variation of o.io per cent, 
of the silicon either way is allowed. But for each o.io per cent, 
of the silicon below this a penalty of i per cent, in the price 
of pig iron should be required. 

The committee who formulated this standard were evidently 
not practical foundrymen or had in view only a standard for 
No. I and No. 2 irons, for no founder could produce from only 
these two grades an iron suitable for all the various grades of 
castings that are made, and no blast-furnaceman could confine 
his furnace to the production of only two grades of iron show- 
ing this standard of analysis. At any rate this standard has not 
proved satisfactory to either founder or furnaceman, and the 
matter was taken up by the Philadelphia Foundrymen's Associa- 
tion, who appointed a committee on standard specifications for 
foundry irons. This committee made the following report at 
the January, 1909, meeting of the association, and the report was 
ordered printed and distributed : 

Philadelphia Foiuidiymen's Association. Standard .Specifica- 
tions for Ponndry Pig Iron. — Your committee would respect- 
fully report that, following the instruction of your association, 
they have, in drawing the enclosed specifications, abandoned the 
buying of pig iron by number. The tables are so arranged that 
different qualities of pig iron can be accurately designated by 

(125) 



126 FOUNDRY IRONS. 

their chemical content. There are three points which, perhaps, 
it is desirable to speak of. 

First. As buying by analysis fails as to the standard for 
newspaper quotations, it is proposed that there shall be a grade 
established upon which prices can be based known as No. 2 
which shall be a quality of metal similar to the foreign standard 
grading upon which warrants are issued, this grade to analyze 
as stated in the specification. 

Second. So that buyers and sellers can readily express the 
character of metal they want, symbols have been put after each 
analysis, the combination of which into one word will express 
exactly what the buyers desire, thus saving considerable ex- 
pense in telegraphing. Further, these symbols condensed into 
a word will be of value when warehousing iron as the word 
written into the certificate will accurately describe the iron that 
is stored. 

Third. If a purchaser wishes to split the steps at which 
silicon varies (0.50 per cent) the tables are so arranged that he 
can designate silicon with a difference only of 0.25 per cent. 

Your Committee believes that with these explanations the 
reason for the new departures will be entirely clear and that the 
tables are so arranged that it will be possible for any one in the 
foundry business to designate with precision the metal he de- 
•iires. 

Proposed Standard Specification for Foiindry Pig Iron — 
Ajialysis. — It is recommended that all purchases be made by 
rvnalysis. 

Sampling. — Each car load or its equivalent shall be consid- 
f-red as a unit, at least one pig shall be selected from each four 
tons of every car load, and so chosen from different parts of the 
car as to represent as nearly as possible the average quality of 
the iron. 

Drillings shall be taken so as to fairly represent the fracture 
surface of each pig. The sample analyzed shall consist of an 
equal quantity of drillings from each pig, well mixed and 
ground before analysis. 



GRADING IRON BY ANALYSIS. 12/ 

Percentage of Elements. — Opposite each percentage of the 
different elements a symbol has been affixed so that buyers, by 
combining these symbols, can form a code word, to be used in 
telegraphing such inquiries as they may desire to make. 

Carbon, 
Total carbon not less than 3.25 per cent. 

Siliccn. 
Per cent. Symbol. Per cent. Symbol. 

0.50 Ca. 2.50 Cu. 

1 ,00 Cc. 3.C0 Cy. 

1-50 Ci. 3.50 Ch, 

2.00 Co. 0.25 allowed variation. 

Sulphtir. 

0.03 Sa. C.07 Su. 

0.04 Se. 0.08 Sy. 

0.05 Si. Maxima gravimetric method. 

0.06 So. 

Phosphorus. 

Less than 0.20 Pa. 1.20 Pu, 

0.30 Pe. 1.50 Py. 

C.60 Pi. 0.15 allowed variation. 

0.90 Po. 

Mati^anese. 

0.40 Ma. 1.20 Mu. 

0.60 .. Me. 1.60 - My. 

0.80 Mi. 0.20 allowed variation. 

1. 00 Mo. 

Example. — Codeword Ci-se-pi-ma represents silicon 1.50, 
sulphur 0.04, phosphorus 0.60, manganese 0.40. Whenever 
standards one-half between the standards above are desired, 
they will be designated by the symbol X. Thus " Cix " means 
1.75 per cent, silicon, or, in trade parlance, 1.50 to 2.00 per 
cent, silicon, and "Cox" means 2.25 per cent, silicon, or, in 
trade parlance, 2.00 to 2.50 per cent, silicon. For market quo- 
tations a grade shall be assumed to be known as No. 2, analyzing 
silicon 2.50 per cent, and over, and sulphur 0.04 per cent, or 
under. 



I2S FOUNDRY IRONS. 

The America 11 Foundrymeii s Assoeinfion Stein da ref Specifica- 
tions for Foundry Pig Iron. — At the Toronto, Canada, meeting 
of the American Foundrymen's Association, 1908, a committee 
was appointed on standard specifications for foundry pig iron, 
to confer with similar committees from the American Society 
for Testing Material, Philadelphia Foundrymen's Association, 
and Eastern Pig Iron Association. This committee, after con- 
ferring with the other committees, made the following report to 
the Cincinnati, Ohio, meeting of the American Foundrymen's 
Association, 1909, which was adopted after much discussion, as 
to whether the gravimetric or the evolution method should be 
used in determining the presence of sulphur. The testing labo- 
ratories and furnacemen opposed the gravimetric method, al- 
though more accurate than the evolution method, on account of 
the additional expense incurred in making it. 

Proposed Standard Specifications for B? tying Pig Iron. — It 
is recommended that foundry pig iron be bought by analysis, 
and that when so bought these standard specifications be used. 

Percentages and Wtriations. — In order that there may be 
uniformity in quotations, the following percentages and varia- 
tions shall be used. 

(These specifications do not advise that all five elements be 
specified in all contracts for pig iron, but do recommend that 
when these elements are specified that the following percentages 
be used.) 

Silicon. 

(0.25 allowed either way.) 

Per cent. Code. Per cent. Code. 

i.oo La. 2.50 Lo. 

1.50 Le. 3.00 Lu. 



Li. 



Sulphur. 

(Maximum,) 

Per cent. Code. Per cent. Code. 

0.04 Sa. 0.08 Su. 

0.05 Se. 0.09 Sy. 

0.06 Si. o.io Sh. 

0.07 So. 



GRADING IRON BY ANALYSIS. 1 29 

Total Carbon. 
(Minimum'.) 
Per cent. Code. Per cent. Code. 

3.00 Ca. 3.60 Co. 

Z-ZO Ce. 3.80 Cu. 

340 .. Ci. 

A'lattganese. 

(0.20 either way.) 

Per cent. Code. Per cent. Code. 

0.20 Ma. I. CO Mil. 

0.40 Me. i.?5 My. 

C.60 Mi. 1.50 Mh, 

o.8o Mo. 

Pkosphortis. 
Per cent. Code. Per cent. Code. 

0.20 Pa. 1 .00 . . . Pu. 

0.40 Pe. 1.25 Py. 

0.60 • Pi. 1.50 Ph. 

0.80 Po. 

Percentage of any element specified one-half way between 
the above shall be designated by addition of letters to next 
lower symbol. In case of phosphorus and manganese, the per- 
centages may be used as maximum or minimum figures, but 
unless so specified, they will be considered to include the varia- 
tions above given. 

SajHpling and Analysis. — Each carload, or its equivalent, 
shall be considered as a unit in sampling. 

One pig of machine cast, or one-half pig of sand cast iron 
shall be taken to every four tons in the car, and shall be so 
chosen from different parts of the car as to represent as nearly 
as possible the average quality of the iron. 

Drillings shall be taken so as to fairly represent the compo- 
sition of the pig as cast. 

An equal weight of the drillings from each pig shall be thor- 
oughly mixed to make up the sample for analysis. 

In case of dispute, the sample and analysis shall be made b\' 
9 



I30 FOUNDRY IRONS. 

an independent chemist mutually agreed upon, if practicable at 
the time the contract is made. 

It is recommended that the standard methods of The Ameri- 
can Foundrymen's Association be used for analysis. Gravi- 
metric methods shall be used for sulphur analysis, unless other- 
wise specified in the contract. The cost of resampling and 
re-analysis shall be borne by the party in error. 

Bast' or Quoting Price. — For market quotations an iron of 
2.00 per cent, in silicon (with variation of 0.25 either way) and 
sulphur 0.05 (maximum) shall be taken as the base. 

Penalties. — In case the iron when delivered does not conform 
to the specifications, the buyer shall have the option of either 
refusing the iron or accepting it on the base shown in the above 
table, which must be filled out at the time the contract is made. 

Allowance. — In case the furnace cannot for any good 
reason deliver the iron as specified at the time delivery is due, 
the purchaser may at his option accept any other analysis which 
the furnace can deliver, the price to be determined by the base 
table above, which must be filled out at the time the contract 
is made. 

Base Table. — The accompanying table may be filled out, 
may become a part of the contract " B," or base representing 
the price agreed upon for a pig iron running 2.00 in silicon 
(with allowed variation of 0.25 either wayj, and under 0.05 
sulphur; " C " is a constant differential to be determined at the 
time the contract is made. 

(This table is for settling any differences which may arise 
in filling the contract, as explained under penalties and allow- 
ance, and may be used to regulate the price of a grade of pig 
iron which the purchaser desires and the seller agrees to sub- 
stitute for the one originally specified.) 

Silicon percentages allow 0.25 variation either way, sulphur 
percentages are maximum. 



GRADINC; IRON BY ANALYSIS. I3I 

Sulphur Silicon Percent. , 

Per cent. 3.25 3.00 2.75 2.50 2.25 2.00 1.75 1.50 1.25 i.oo 

0.04 B-^6C B-I-5C B+4C B+3C B + 2C B+iC B B— iCB— 2CB— 3C 

0.05 B+5C B^-4C B+3C B+2C B4-1C B B— iC B— 2C B— 3C B— 4C 

0.06 B+4C B4-3C B + 2C B+iCB B— iC B— 2C B— 3C B— 4C B— 5C 

0.07..... B+3C Bf 2C B+iC B B— iC B— 2C B— 3C B— 4C B— 5C B— 6C 

0.08 B+2C B+ iC B B— iC B— 2C B— 3C B— 4C B— 5C B— 6C B— 7C 

0.09 . ... B-f- iC B B— iC B— 2C B— 3C B— 4C B— 5C B— 6C B— 7C B— 8C 

o. 10 B B— iC B— 2C B— 3C B— 4C B— 5C B— 6C B— 7C B— 8C B— 9C 

Note. — The specifications of The American and Philadelphia 
Associations have been so recently adopted that they have not 
been in use a sufficient length of time to test them as a standard 
in the buying and selling of irons, but they will no doubt 
answer the purpose, as they give a wide range for the various 
elements, and cover the old and well-known theory that all 
irons are good irons when properly mixed and melted, and 
more than one brand and grade of iron is necessary to produce 
castings of different degrees of hardness, softness, and strength. 

Analyses of Castings. — The following analyses of castings 
collected from various parts of the country show those that 
have proved satisfactory for different lines of castings made 
from different brands of iron. The variations in them are due 
to the characteristics of the various brands of iron and also, in 
some instances, to the use of charcoal iron or steel scrap in the 
mixture. 

Stove Plate, T. C. 3.33, Si. 2.80, P. 0.80, S. 0.09, M. 0.20. 

Light Pulleys, T. C. 3.40, Si. 3.10, P. 0.80, M. 0.71. 

Heavy Pulleys, T. C. 3.25, Si. 3, P. 0.70, S. o.io, M. 0.75. 

Auto Cylinders, Si. 2.50, P. 0.70, S. 0.50, M. o.io. 

Auto Cylinders, Si. 2.25, P. 0.08, S. 0.75, M. 0.50. 

Gear Wheels, Si. 2.00, P. 0.70, S. 0.50, M. 0.70. 

Gear Wheels, C. C. 0.75, G. C. 2.25, Si. 2.00, P. 0.50, M. 
0.50, Tensile Strength, 36.546. 

Steam Cylinders, Weight, 1.500 to 3.000 lbs., Thickness of 
metal, 1.25 to 1.50 inches, Si. 1.20 to 1.60, P. o«.70, M. 0.70 
S. 0.50 or less. 

Bedstead Joints, Si. 3.00, P. i.oo, M. 0.20, S. o.io. 



132 FOUNDRY IRONS. 

Pipe Fittings, T. C. 2.75 to 3.50, Si. 3.00, P. i.oo, M. 0.05, 
S. o.io. 

Small Cylinders, Si. 1.88, P. 0.50, M. 0.85, S. 0.26. 

Chill Rolls, C. C. 1. 10, G. C. 1.71, Si. 0.78, P. 0.50, S. 0.61, 
M. 0.21. 

Mine Car Wheels, Si, 2.40, P. 0.50, S. o.io, M. 0.77. 

Malleable Iron, Si. 0.75 to 1.50, M. 0.60, S. 0.04. 

Chills for Foundry Use, Si. 2.50, P. o.io, S. 0.07. 

Close Strong Iron for Heavy Castings, Si. 1.20 to 1.50, S. 
O.IO, P. 0.35 to 0.50, M. 0.50 to 0.75. 

Medium Heavy Castings, Si. 1.50 to 2.00, S. o.io, P. 0.30 
to 0.50, E. 0.40 to 0.80. 

Soft Light Castings, Si. 2.25, to 2.75, P. 0.70, M. 0.70, S. 0.20. 

Annealing Pots, Si. 0.60 to 0.80, P. o.io to 0.20, M. 0.40 to 
0.60, S. 0.92 to 0.03. 

Car wheel mixture most commonly used is composed of 
about, 20 per cent, charcoal pig, 30 per cent, of 2 per. cent, 
manganese coke pig, 10 per cent, steel rail, and the balance re- 
melt scrap and old wheels. 

Method of Calculating Mixtures for the Cupola. 

Analysis 0/ t/te Caslings Required. 

Per cent. 

Silicon 1 .60 

Phosphorus 0.70 

Sulphur less than o.io 

Manganese 0.50 

From previous experience with the iron and coke, due con- 
sideration being given to local melting conditions, it is estimated 
that the approximate loss of silicon will be 0.25 per cent, and 
manganese o.io per cent., while the increase in sulphur will be 
approximately 0.03 per cent. 

The average analysis of the iron and scrap to be charged 
should be as follows: 

Per cent. 

Silicon 1 .85 

Phosphorus o. 70 

Sulphur less than 0.07 

Manganese 0.60 



GRADING IRON BY ANALYSIS. 



133 



Tabulation of the material to be charged and Method of Figuring the 

Mixture. 



Kind of Material. 



Steel scrap 

Machinery scrap 

High sulphur Southern. 

X No. I 

No. 3 foundry 4,000 

High silicon iron I 800 



4C0 

2;000 

1,600 
1,600 



Total 

Average per cent 



Analysis. 






O.IO 

1.70? 
0.70 

3.00 

1-75 
3-50 






a- w 
t/j If ' 



^ a*. 



0.07 O.IO 



Weight of * 



0.60 0.40 0.28 0.40 



10,400 



0,10? 

O.IO 

0.03 
0.07 
0.025 



r.co? 0.60? 34.00 2.00 I 20.00 



1.50 
0.80 
0.30 



2.40 
12.00 



0.30 II.20j 1.60 j 24.00 4.80 
1.25 I 48.00,0.48 12.80 20.00 



0.60 



0.07 I 0.60 



70.00 2.80 



28.00 



191.60 
1.84 



0.20 

7-36 
0.071 



12.00 24.CO 
O.56I 4.80 



69.76 
0.67 



68.00 
0.65 



* Multiply the weight of each kind of material by the per cent, of the element in 
it, then divide the total weight of each element by the total weight of the materia' 
which in this example is 10,400 pounds. 

By the relative adjustment of the pig iron and scrap, mixtures for any desired 
analysis can be made. 



CHAPTER XI. 

Chemical Standards for Iron Castings. 

The following report on chemical standards for iron castings 
of the various grades or classes was made at the Detroit meeting 
of the American Foundrymen's Association by a committee ap- 
pointed at a previous meeting : 

Chemical Statidards for Iron Castings. — Under this heading 
is presented what is probably the largest collection of analyses 
of iron castings ever gathered into one table, and it is thought 
that the information contained should be of considerable value 
and interest. 

The sources of these data are three in number : first, published 
work; second, the private notes of the writer; third, the replies 
to the inquiries sent out by your committee : 

Regarding this last source, which has supplied the greater 
number of analyses, approximately i,ooo inquiries were sent 
out to as many different foundries, selected largely at random 
from " Penton's List." These inquiries ran in substance as fol- 
lows : 

" At the last convention of the American Foundrymen's As- 
sociation it was decided to make an attempt to formulate chem- 
ical standards for iron castings, in the belief that such standards 
would be of great use both to the individual foundryman and to 
the industry as a whole. 

" The information on which these should be based could, of 
course, be obtained by analyzing typical castings bought in the 
open market. This would, however, involve much trouble and 
expense, and will be unnecessary if foundrymen will freely donate 
the information for the good of the industry. 

"We urge you, therefore, to act generously in giving us the 

(134) 



CHEMICAL STANDARDS FOR IRON CASTINGS. 1 35 

data indicated below, and since composition is but one item 
in the successful manufacture of castings, we feel sure that in 
so doing there can be no possible detriment to your personal 
interests. . 

" Replies will, of course, be entirely confidential as regards the 
names of those giving information. There is desired the fol- 
lowing information : 

"Name or Class of Castings, Silicon, Sul.. Phos., Mang., 
Comb. Carb., Graph. Carb., Total Carb." 

To this letter about 10 per cent, of replies were received, the 
greater number of which contained more or less information. 

Regarding the classification of castings, it is evidently impos- 
sible to consider as separate cases all the different patterns. 
Nor would this be desirable, since any foundry must itself class 
its castings into comparatively few groups which are each poured 
from one kind of iron. For example, a shop doing machine- 
tool work may make castings from several hundred patterns and 
will use not to exceed four mixtures of iron for all of these, 
probably dividing the work into light, medium and heavy cast- 
ings, with possibly a special mixture for pulleys. It is thought, 
therefore, that a classification according to use or properties 
necessary is in the majority of cases desirable. 

Thickness is, of course, taken into consideration, since this 
largely determines the percentage of silicon necessary, and it has 
been the aim to subdivide the various classes according to sec- 
tion wherever possible. In this respect the writer has en- 
deavored to follow the definitions of the American Society for 
Testing Materials, who have grouped castings according to thick- 
ness as follows : (126). 

" Castings having any section less than one-half of an inch 
thick shall be known as light castings." 

" Castings in which no section is less than 2 inches thick shall 
be known as heavy castings." 

" Medium castings are those not included in the above defi- 
nitions." 

It is unfortunately true that there is much lacking in this 



136 FOUNDRY IRONS. 

table, many important classes of castings being entirely missing, 
while others are inadequately represented by only one or two 
analyses. These deficiencies are due to the lack of available 
data in certain cases, and it is to be hoped that they may be at 
least partially remedied by future work. 

Malleable cast iron is omitted entirely, partly because of the 
small amount of data obtained and partly because its manufac- 
ture is a process entirely different from those involved in the 
ordinary iron foundry. 

Regarding arrangement, the analyses taken from published 
sources are preceded by a number in the first column referring 
to the bibliography, Part V. The last analysis under each head 
is preceded by the word " Sug." (abbreviated from suggested) 
and is the tentative standard or probable best analysis suggested 
by your committee. It should be clearly understood in this 
connection that while this is based on a careful study of both 
theory and practice, it represents only the individual opinion of 
the writer, and is not necessarily infallible. 

Furthermore, these suggestions are incomplete in certain other 
respects. The most desirable percentage of silicon, for example, 
will depend largely on the exact thickness of the casting and the 
practice followed in shaking out. These factors, being in many 
cases undetermined, have been allowed for by giving fairly wide 
limits to this element. Again, the possibilities in the use of 
purifying alloys have not been taken into account here, although 
they have been discussed in the preceding parts, and the use of 
steel scrap has been ignored except that the " low " total carbon 
specified in some cases must, as a rule, be obtained in this way. 
Finally, in many cases, a very wide range of composition is per- 
missible and compatible with the best results, and in such cases 
the question of cost will be the first element to be considered in 
fixing the composition. 



CHEMICAL STANDARDS FOR IRON CASTINGS. 



137 



Acid J^estsiing Castings. 













Comb. 


Total 


Ref. 


Silicon. 


Sulphur. 


Phos. 


Mang. 


Carb. 


Carb. 




Per cent. 


Per cent. 


Per cent. 


Per cent. 


Per cent. 


Per cent. 


7 


1. 00 


.050 


.50 






3.00 


42 


2.30 


low 


.20 


.41 




3.60 


Si 


.80-2.CO 


.02-.03 


.40-. 60 


1.00-2.00 




3.00-3.50 


Sug, 


* 1. CO- 2.00 


und.* .05 


und. .40 


1. 00- 1. 50 




3.00-3 50 


Acid sails and I^ggs. 


See Acid Resisting Castii 


ngs. 






Agricultural Machinery, Ordinary. 










64 


2.20-2.80 


und. .085 


und. .70 


und. 70 








2.65 


.050 


.81 


.70 


•15 


3^50 




2.25 


.070 


.70 


.80 


•30 


Z-l^ 




2.10 


.c68 


•7.3 


•45 


•47 


3-42 




2.00 


.089 


.89 


.46 


•50 


3^39 


Sug. 


2.CC-2.50 


.C6-.08 


.60-.80 


.60-.80 






Agri 


cultural Mackifiery, Very Thin 












2.90 


.C50 


.85 


.70 


.10 


3-5° 




2.50 


.080 


.65 


.60 


•30 


3-5° 


Sug. 


2.25-2.75 


.06-.C8 


.70-.90 


.50-.70 






Air 


Cylinders. 












64 


1. 20-1. 50 


und. .09 


.35-.60 


.50-.80 








1.50 


.074 


•50 


•^5 








1. 12 


.085 


.40 


.70 


.70 


3^50 




.95 


.100 


•30 


.90 


.80 


3-40 




2. GO 


.070 


•30 


.60 


.40 




Sug. 


I.CO-I.75 


und. .09 


.30..50 


.70-.90 




3.00-3.30 


Ammonia Cylinders. 












14 


1. 20- 1. 90 


und. .095 


und. .70 


.60-.80 






Sug. 


I.OO-I.75 


und. .09 


.30-.50 


.70-.90 




3.00-3.30 



Annealing Boxes for Malleable Casting Work. 



Sug. 



•65 



•05 



2.73 



Annealing Boxes, Pots and Pans. 



2.75 



171 1.20 


.060 


.10 


.40 






8i 1.80 


•03 


.70 


.60 




2.90 


198 1.53 


.04 


■Zl 


i.c8 


.58 


368 


Sug. 1. 40- 1. 60 


und. .06 


und. ,20 


.60-1.00 




low 


Automobile Castings. 












1.80 


.030 


•50 


.70 


.60 


3-50 


1.65 


.076 


•45 


•65 


•55 




2.35 


.072 


.60 


.70 


.40 




Sug. 1.75-2.25 


und. .08 


.40-.50 


.60-.S0 







* " und." is abbreviated from under and " sug." from suggested. 



138 



FOUNDRY IRONS. 



Automobile Cylinders 





y 








Comb. 


Total 


Ref. 


Silicon. 


Sulphur. 


Phos. • 


Mang. 


Carh. 


Carb. 




Per cent. 


Per cent. 


Per cent. 


Per cent. 


I'er cent. 


Per cent. 




1.65 


.076 


•45 


•65 


•55 




19 


2.31 


.094 


•50 


•43 


•51 


3^35 


»9 


2.70 


•053 


.46 


•23 


.44 


3.02 


J9 


2.45 


.102 


.72 


.41 


.41 


■ 3^47 


19 


2.59 


.083 


•57 


•47 


.11 


3-35 


19 


2-55 


.104 


.82 


•32 


.09 


3-04 


19 


2.98 


.047 


.89 


.27 


.14 


3-19 


19 


2.67 


.lU 


•73 


.38 


.10 


3^24 


19 


2.30 


.084 


.81 


•52 


•59 


3^35 


19 


1.60 


.083 


•54 


.42 


.66 


3^75 


19 


3.26 


•'59 


•93 


•44 


•03 


2.87 


19 


1.72 


.091 


.58 


.48 


.62 


2.52 


19 


1.67 


.068 


.44 


.82 


.62 


•3-91 


«9 


1.38 


•093 


.62 


•52 


.76 


3^61 


19 


1.47 


•075 


•13 


.60 






19 


1.50 


.IC3 


.86 


•43 






19 


1.99 


.130 


•65 


•39 


•45 


3-17 


19 


1.89 


.090 


.70 


•39 


•77 


3-34 


19 


2.29 


.090 


•83 


.60 


.90 


4.16 


Sug.* I 


.75-2.00 


un<l.* .08 


.40-.50 


.60-.80 


•55-6; 


3.00-3.25 


Automobile Fly Wheels. 












2.35 


.072 


.60 


.70 


.40 






3.10 


•045 


•35 


•55 


•27 




Sug. 


2.25-2.50 


und. .07 


.40-.50 


.50-.70 






Balls for 


Ball Mills. 












196 


1. 00 


.100 


•30 


•50 




low 


Sug. 


1.00-I.25 


und. .08 


und. .20 


.60-1.00 




low 


j^^-f/ /'/ato. 














2.20 


.090 


•55 


•50 








1.32 


.090 


.40 


.60 








1.65 




.28 


.72 








1.85 


.080 


.60 


•55 


.50 


3.25-3-50 




1.80-2.20 


.04-.06 


•45-.55 


.40-.50 


.40-.50 


3.40-3.00 




1.65-1.85 


.070 


.65-.80 


.60..75 




3.85 


Sug. 


I-25-I-75 


und. .10 


.30-.50 


.60-.80 






Binders. 


See Agricultural Machinery. 









and." is abbreviated from under and " sug." from suggested. 



CHEMICAL STANDARDS FOR IRON CASTINGS. 



139 



Boile> 


Castings. 








Comb. 


Total 


Ref. 


Silicon. 


Sulphur. 


Phos. 


Mang. 


Carb. 


Carb. 




Per cent. 


Per cent. 


Per cent. 


Per cent. 


Per cent. 


Per cent. 


194 


2.50 


und.* .07 


und. .20 


.80-1.0 








2.25 


.060 


.62 


•59 






Sug.* 


2.00-2.50 


und. .06 


und. ,20 


.60-1.0 






Brake 


Shoes. 












95 


1.50 




low 






low 


64 


2.00-2.50 


und. .15 


und. .70 


und. .70 






57 


2.00-2.50 


und. .15 


und. .70 


und. .70 








1. 40- 1. 80 


.06-.G8 


.50-.80 


.45 -.60 


.4O-.65 


3-50 




1.86 


.183 


1-93 


•Zl 


1.22 


3.01 


Sug. 


1. 40- 1. 60 


.08-.10 


.30 


.50-.70 




low 


Car Castings, Gray 


Iron. See also 


Brake Shoes 


and Car ' 


Wheels. 




64 


2.20-2.80 


und. .085 


und. ,70 


und. .70 








1. 40- 1. 80 


.o5-.o8 


.50-.80 


.45 -.60 


.40-.65 


3-5° 




2.25 


.050 


.60 


•75 




3-50 




1-75 


.070 


•^5 


.60 






Sug. 


1.50-2.25 


und. ,08 


.40-. 60 


.60-.80 






Car Wheels, Chilled. 












51 


.50-70 


.05-.07 


•35-45 


.30-.50 


•50-75 


3^50 


171 


.58-.68 


.05 -.08 


•25-45 


.15-.27 


.63-1.0 




171 


•73 


.080 


•43 


•44 


^•25 


4^3 1 


171 


.86 


.127 


•35 


•49 


.92 


347 


126 


.70 


.08 


•50 


.40 


.60 


3^50 




•58 


.141 


•38 


.48 


•90 


3.63 




•57 


.101 


.41 


.42 








.68 


.188 


•36 


•53 








.67 


.170 


•38 


.81 


•74 


■ 3.66 




.50-.60 


.08-.10 


.30-.40 


45--55 


.70-.80 


3^50 


Sug. 


.60-.70 


.oS-.io 


•30-40 


.50-.60 


.60-.80 


3^50-3^7o 



Car Wheels, Unchilled. .See Wheels, 

theviical Castings. See Acid Resisting Castings. 



Chilled Castings. 












135 .80-1.00 


.09-. 1 1 


•50 


.50 






197 1. 20-1. 40 




low 






low 


69 I. CO 


.08 


.40 


•75 




3-25 


65 1-35 


.117 


.60 


•54 


.65 


3,00 


•50 


.200 


45 


1.50 


3.00 


3.00 


1.20 


.090 


.30 


•50 


1.20 


3.20 


1.20 


.080 


•30 


1-25 




3^50 


•75 


.090 


•30 


•30 


3.00 


3.20 


Sug. 75-1.25 


.08-1.0 


.20-.40 


.80-1.2 







' und." is abbreviated from under and " sug." from suggested. 



I40 


FOUP 


JDRY IR< 


DNS. 






Chills. 








Comb. 


Total 


Ref. Silicon. 


Sulphur. 


Phos. 


Mang. 


Carb. 


Carb. 


Per cent. 


Per cent. 


Per cent. 


Per cent. 


Per cent. 


Per cent. 


105 2.07 


•073 


•31 


.48 


•23 


2.64 


Sug.* 1.75-2.25 


und.* .07 


.20-.40 


.60-1.0 






Collar i and Coupli 


ngs for S'laftin^. 










1.60 


.040 


•55 


•55 


•30 


3^57 


Sug. 1.75-2.CO 


und. .08 


.40-.50 


.60-.80 






Cotton Machinery. 


See also Machin 


ery Casting 


s. 






2.20-2.30 


und. .09 


.70 


.60 


•45 


3-45 


Sug. 2.00-2.25 


und. .08 


.60-.80 


.60-.80 






Crusher jaws. 












135 .80- 1. CO 


.09-. 1 1 


•50 


•50 






69 I. CO 


.oSo 


.40 


•75 




3^25 


•50 


.20 


•45 


1.50 


3.00 


3.00 


Sug. .80-1.00 


.08-.10 


.20-.40 


.80-1.2 






Cutting Tools, Chilled Cast Iron. 










65 1-35 


.117 


.60 


•54 


.65 


3.00 


Sug. 1.00-1.25 


und. .08 


.20-.40 


.60-.80 






Cylinders. See Air Cylinders, 




Ammonia 


Cylinders, 




Automobile Cylinders, 


Gas Engine Cylinders, 




H 


ydraulic Cylinders, 




Locomoti' 


ve Cylinders, 





Steam Cylinders. 
Cylinder Bushings, Locomotive. See Locomotive Castings, Heavy. 
Dies for Drop Hammers. 



171 1.40 .060 


.10 


.40 


1.40 .090 


.40 


.70 


Sug. 1.25-I.50 und. .07 


und. .20 


.60-.80 


Diamond Polishing Wheels. 






105 2.70 .063 


■30 


•44 



1.60 



Dynamo and Motor Frames, Bases and Spiders, Large. 

171 1.95 -^42 .40 .39 

1.90 .08 .47 .60 

2.15 .070 .75 .60 

2.10 .070 .55 .40 

Sug. 2.00-2.50 und. .08 .50-.80 .30-.40 



3.20 
low 



2.97 



•59 


3-82 


.64 


3-79 


•55 


3.80 




3-50 


.20-.30 


low 



und." is abbreviated from under and " sug." from suggested. 



CHEMICAL STANDARDS FOR IRON CASTINGS. 



141 



Dynamo and Motor Frames, Bases and Spiders, Small. 











Comb. 


Total 


Ref. Silicon. 


Sulphur. 


Phos. 


Mang. 


Carb. 


Carb. 


Per cent. 


Per cent. 


Per cent. 


Per cent. 


Per cent. 


Per cent. 


171 3.19 


•075 


.89 


•35 


.06 


2-95 


2.30 


.070 


•55 


.40 




3.50 


2.50 


.070 


•75 


.60 


•55 


3-95 


Sug.* 2.50-3.00 


* und. .08 


.50-. 80 


.30-.40 


.20-.30 


low 


Electrical Castings 












171 3-19 


•075 


.89 


•35 


.06 


2.95 


171 1-95 


.042 


.40 


•39 


•59 


3.82 


1.90 


.080 


•47 


.60 


.64 


3-79 


2.15 


.070 


.75 


.60 


•55 


3.80 


2.50 


.070 


•75 


.60 


•55 


3^95 


2.10 


.070 


•55 


.40 




3.50 


2.30 


.070 


•55 


.40 




3-50 


Sug. 2.CO-3.00 


und. .08 


.50- .80 


.30.-40 


.20-.30 


low 


Eccentric Straps. 


See Locomotive Castings an 


d Machinery 


Castings. 




Engine Castings. 


See Bed Plates. 




Engine Frai 


lies. 






Fly Wheels, 




Locomotive 


Castings, 






Machinery Castings, 


Steam Cylinders. 




Engine Frames. 1 


See also Machinery Castings. 








2.25 


.080 


•55 


.60 






1. 00 


.090 


•5° 


.Co 






1.32 


.100 


.40 


.60 






Sug. 1.25-2.00 


und. .09 


.30-.50 


.60.-1.0 






Fans and Blovuers. 


See Machinery 


Castings. 








Farm Imple?nents. 












2.00 


.089 


.89 


.46 


.50 


3^39 


2.10 


.068 


.68 


•45 


•47 


3-32 


Sug. 2.00-2.50 


.06-.08 


.5C-.80 


.60.80 






Fire Pots. 












194 2.50 


und. .07 


und. .20 


.80-1.0 






Sug. 2.00-2.50 


und. .06 


und. .20 


.60- 1 .0 







Fly Wheels. See also Automobile Fly Wheels and Machinery Castings. 
2.20 .090 .55 .50 

1.50 .090 .50 .60 

Sug. 1.50-2.25 und. .08 .40-.60 .50-. 70 



" und." is abbreviated from under and " sug." from suggested. 



142 



FOUNDRY IRONS. 



Friction Clutches. 

Ref. Silicon. 

Per cent. 
64 2.00-2.50 

Sug.* 1.75-2.00 

Furnace Castings. 
194 2.50 

2.00 

1.85 
2.00-2.50 



Sug. 



Sulphur. 

Per cent, 
und.* .15 

.08-. 10 



und. .07 
.085 
.090 

und. .c6 



Gas Engine Cylinders. 

137 1-45 

1.98 
1. 21 
1.00-1.25 
Sug. 1.00-1.75 

Gears, Heavy. 
171 1.40 

•94 

1.60 

1.50-1.75 

1. 00- 1. 25 

1,40-1.60 

Sug. 1. 00- 1. 50 

Gears, Aledium. 

1.50-2.00 

1.90 

2.30 

1.90 

1.50-2.00 



64 
171 



Sug. 

Gears, Small. 

198 3-43 

2.00 
Sug. 2.00-2.50 

Grate Bars. 

•95 2.75 

2.00 
Sug. 2,00.-2.50 



0.90 

.117 

.04 -.08 
und. .08 



0.60 
.150 
.080 
.080 

•075 
.04-.08 
.08-.10 



und. .08 
.060 
.060 
.100 

und. .09 



.100 
und. .08 



low 

.085 

und. .06 







Comb. 


Total 


Phos. 


Mang. 


Carb. 


Carb. 


Per cent. 


Per cent. 


Per cent. 


Per cent 


und. .70 


und. .70 






und. .30 


.50-.70 




low 



und. .20 .80-1.0 

•35 -53 

.70 .60 

und. .20 .60-1.00 



•65 

.84 .63 

•40 .35 

.20-.40 .70-. 80 

.20-.40 .70-.90 



.10 

•43 

.40 
.40-.60 

.40 
.30-.50 
.30-.50 



.35.-.60 

.10 

.60 

.69 
.40-.60 



1.42 

•50 
.50-.70 



low 

•35 
und. .20 



.40 

•31 

.60 
.50-.70 
.80-1.0 
.40-.60 
.80- 1 .0 



.50-.80 

.40 

.60 

•58 
.70-.90 



.90 

.70 

.60-.80 



•53 
.60-1.0 



1.40 
.60-.80 



1.47 



.50-.80 



•55 



low 



3^74 
3.00-3.10 
3.00-3.30 



3^50 

very low 

3.20-3.40 

low 



3^75 
3-83 



3.50 



und. .30 



low 



" und.'' is abbreviated from under and " sug." from suggested. 



CHEMICAL STANDARDS FOR IRON CASTINGS. 



143 



Grinding Machinery, Chilled Castings for. 













Comb. 


Total 


Ref. 


Silicon. 


Sulphur. 


Phos. 


Mang. 


Carb. 


Carb. 




Per cent. 


Per cent. 


Per cent. 


Per cent. 


Per cent. 


Per cent. 




•50 


.2CO 


•45 


1.50 


3.00 


3.00 


Sug.* 


•50--75 


.15-.20 


.20-.40 


1.5-2.0 






Gun 


Carriages. 












171 


.94 


.050 


•44 


•3' 


•63 


3.03 


171 


1. 00 


.050 


•30 


.60 


l.IO 


2.50 


Sug. 


1. 00- 1. 25 


und,* .06 


.20.30 


.80-1.0 




low 


Gun Iron. 












171 


1-34 


.C03 


.08 


1. 00 


•93 


3.12 


171 


1. 19 


•055 


.41 


.42 


^•n 


3.18 


171 


1-53 


.050 


.29 


•45 


•42 


3-43 


171 


.98 


.06 


•43 


•43 


•75 


1.74 


198 


•30 




•44 


3-55 


1.70 


3-9° 




1.20 


.100 


•30 


.80 


I. CO 


3.00 


Sug. 


i.oo-i.2t; 


und. .06 


.20-.30 




.80-1.0 


low 


Hangers for Shafting. 














1.60 


.040 


•55 


•55 


•30 


3^57 


Sug. 


1.50-2.00 


und. .c8 


.40-.50 


.60-.80 






Hardxvare, Light. 












198 


1.84 




.58 


1.04 






198 


2.20 




•74 


1. 10 






198 


2.50 




1. 21 


1. 16 








2.51 


.110 


.62 


.41 


.24 


3.18 




2.70 


.030 


.60 


•50 


.40 


3.60 




2.50 


unJ. .050 


.60 


.70 








2.00-2.25 


.050 


•85 


.40 




3.85-4.00 


Sug. 


2 25-2.75 


und. .08 


.50-. 80 


.50-.70 






Heat Resistant Iron. 












171 


1.20 


.060 


.10 


.40 






171 


1.67 


.032 


.09 


.29 


•43 


387 


134 


2.15 


.086 


1.26 


.41 


•13 


3-3° 


134 


2.02 


.070 


.89 


.29 


.84 


3.60 


198 


1-53 


.040 


•33 


1.08 


•58 


3.68 


105 


2.07 


•073 


•3' 


.48 


•23 


2.64 


81 


1.80 


.030 


.70 


.60 






195 


2-75 


low 


low 








194 


2.50 


und. .07 


und. .20 


.80- 1 .0 








1.76 


•075 


■63 


•79 


•56 


3.68 




2.00 


.030 


.70 








Sug. 


1.25-2.50 


und. .06 


und. .20 


.60-1.00 


und. .30 


low 



* " und.'' is abbreviated fiom under and " sug." from suggested. 



144 



FOUNDRY IRONS. 



Hollow Ware. 








Comb. 


Total 


Ref. Silicon. 


Sulphur. 


. Phos. 


Mang. 


Carb. 


Carb. 


Per cent. 


Per cent. 


Per cent. 


Per cent. 


Pet cent. 


Per cent. 


2.51 


.110 


.62 


.41 


.24 


3^i8 


Sug.* 2.25-2.75 


und.* .08 


.50-.70 


.SO-.70 






Housings for Rolling 


Mills. 










1.00-1.25 


.085 


.65 


•75 




low 


Sug. 1. 00- 1. 25 


und. .c8 


.20-.30 


.8c-i.o 




low 


Hydraulic Cylinders, 


Heavy. 










171 I.CO 


.050 


•30 


.60 


1. 10 


2.50 


22 ,90 


.136 


•39 


•25 


1.44 


3-34 


63 .80-1.50 


.07-. 1 1 


•35--50 








1. 12 


.085 


.40 


.70 


.70 


i-y> 


•95 


.100 


.30 


.90 


.80 


3-40 


115 


und. .08 


•50 


.60 


^•i5 




.90-1.20 


.c6-.c8 


.30--50 


.80-1.0 


.80-1.0 


2.90-3.10 


Sug. .80-1.20 


und. .10 


.20-.40 


.80-1.0 




low 


Hydraulic Cylinders, 


Medium . 










171 1.40 


.060 


.10 


.40 






1.90 


.074 


•5° 


•65 






1.62 


.08 


.50 


.60 






••75 


.070 


.40 


•55 


.50 




Sug. 1. 20-1.60 


und. .09 


.30--5O 


.70..90 




low 


Ingot Molds and Stools. 










171 1.20 


.060 


.10 


.40 






171 1.67 


.032 


.09 


.29 


•43 


3^87 


Sug. 1. 25-1. 50 


und. .06 


und. .20 


.60-1.0 






Locomotive Castings, 


Heavy. 










57 1.40-2.00 


und. .085 


und. .60 


und. .70 






1.25-1.50 


.06-.08 


.40-.60 


.45 -.60 


.SO-.70 


3-5° 


1.62 


.098 


.40 


•49 






Su^. 1. 25-1. 50 


und. .oS 


.30-.50 


.70-.90 






Locomotive Castings, Light. 










57 1.40 2.00 


und. .085 


und, .60 


und. .70 






1.50-2.00 


.o6-.o8 


.40-. 6o 


.45-.60 


•45-^55 


3-So 


Sug. 1.50-2.00 


und. .08 


.40-. 60 


.60-, 8o 







♦ " und." is abbreviated from under and " sug." from suggested. 



CHEMICAL STANDARDS FOR IRON CASTINGS. 



US 



Locomotive Cylinders. 













Comb. 


Total. 


Ref. 


Silicon. 


Sulphur. 


Phos. 


Mang. 


Carb. 


Carb. 




Per cent. 


Per cent. 


Per cent. 


Per cent. 


Per cent. 


Per cent. 


126 


1. 25-1.75 


und.* .10 


und. .90 








57 


1.40-2.00 


und. .085 


und. .60 


und. .70 








1. 25-1 .50 


.06-.08 


.40-.60 


.45-.60 


.50-.70 


3^50 




1. 00- 1. 40 


und. .11 


.40-.90 


.40-.90 








I.41 


.092 


.38 


•39 








,.56 


.061 


•45 


•78 






Sug.* 
Locks 


1. 00-1.50 
and Hinges. 


.08-. 10 
See Hardware, 


.30-.50 
Light. 


.80-1.0 






Machinery Castings, 


Heavy. 










171 


1.05 


.110 


•54 


•35 


.33 


2.98 


178 


.85 


.030 


•35 


.92 






63 


.80-1.50 


.030-.C50 


•35--50 










- .90- 1.50 


.09-1.2 


.15-.40 


.20-.80 


.10-30 


2.50-2.90 




1.85 


.100 


•50 


.60 




3.50 




1.30 


.090 


.40 


.60 








1.85 


.120 


.60 


•45 




3^40-3^55 




1-75 


.100 


•50 


.70 


.80 


3.65 


Sug. 


1. 00- 1. 50 


und. .10 


.30-.50 


.80-1.0 




low 


Mach 


inery Castings, 


Medium. 










171 


1.83 


.078 


.50 


•31 


•43 


2.93 




2.25 


.080 


•55 


.60 








1.60 


.060 


.66 










2.29 


.071 


.66 


.49 








1.60 


.090 


.50 


.60 








2.IO 


.110 


.67 


•50 




3-40-3^55 




2.25 


.060 


•75 


•55 








2.00 


.100 


•75 


.50 


•75 


3-50 




1.76 


•075 


•63 


•79 


.56 


3-68 




2.00 


.100 


.50 


■50 


•50 


3.60 




2.35 


.075 


•45 


.65 


.30 






1.80 


.060 


.80 


•50 


.70 






2.06 


•075 


•78 


•47 




3.45 




1.40 


low 


.20 


.40 








2.00 


.030 


.70 










1.85 


.08 


.60 


.50-.60 


.50 


3^25-3^50 




1.50-2.10 


.08-.09 


.40-.80 


.20-.60 


.10-. 40 


2.60-3.20 




1. 80-2. 10 


und. .09 


.40-.90 


.40-.90 






Sug. 


1.50-2.00 


und. .09 


.40-.60 


.60-.80 







* " und." is abbreviated from under and " sug." from suggested. 



10 



146 



FOUNDRY IRONS. 



Machinery Castings, Light. 



Ref. 



171 











Comb. 


Total 


Silicon. 


Sulphur. 


Phos. 


Mang. 


Carb. 


Carb. 


Per cent. 


Per cent. 


Per cent. 


Per cent. 


Per cent. 


Per cent. 


2.04 


.044 


•58 


•39 


•32 


3-84 


2.25 


.080 


.70 


•50 


.20 


3-55 


2.76 


■037 


1. 19 




•13 


3.66 


2.49 


.097 


.90 


.42 




3-40 


2-51 


.084 


.62 


.61 




346 


2.50 


.100 


■ .60 


.70 




3-50 


3.00 


.060 


■65 


•50 




3-50 


2.40 


.050 


•47 


•59 






2.85 


.064 


.67 


•65 






2.52 


.062 


.66 


.68 






3-15 


0.50 










2.50 


.100 


.70 


.60 




3-40-3^5! 


2.20-2.80 


.06-.08 


.60-1.3 


.20-.40 


.IO-.60 


3.CO-3.6C 


2.00-2.50 


und.* .08 


.50-.70 


.50-.70 







Sug.' 

Machine Tool Castings. See Machinery Castings. 

Motor Frames, Bases and Spiders. See Dynamo. 

Molding Machines. See Machinery Castings. 

Mowers. See Agricultural Machinery. 

Niter Pots. See Acid Resisting Castings and Heat Resisting Castings. 



Ornamental Work. 












171 4.19 


.080 


1.24 


.67 


•03 


2.88 


2.51 


.110 


.62 


.41 


.24 


3.18 


2.25 




.60-.90 








Sug. 2.25-2.75 


und. .08 


.60-1.0 


.50-.70 






Permanent Molds. 












134 2.15 


.086 


1.26 


.41 


•13 


3-y> 


134 2.02 


.070 


.89 


.29 


.84 


3.60 


Sug. 2.00-2.25 


und. .07 


.20-. 40 


.60-1.0 






Permanent Mold Castings. 










93 2.00-3.00 










3.oo-4.( 


1.50-3.00 


und. .06 




und. .40 







* " und." is abbreviated from under and " sug." from suggested. 



CHEMICAL STANDARDS FOR IRON CASTINGS, 



147 



Piano Plates. 








Comb. 


Total 


Ref. Silicon. 


Sulphur. 


Phos. 


Mang. 


Carb. 


Carb. 


Per cent. 


Per cent. 


Per cent. 


Per cent. 


Per cent. 


Per cent. 


197 2.00 


low 


.40 


.60 






Sug.* 2.00-2.25 


und.* .07 


.4O-.60 


.60.80 






Pillow Blocks. 












1.60 


.040 


•55 


•55 


•30 


3-50 


Sug. 1. 50- 1. 75 


und. .08 


.40-.50 


.60-.80 






Pipe. 












2.C0 


.060 


.60 


.60 






2.00 


.060 


1. 00 


.60 






Sug. 1.50-2.00 


und. .\o 


.50-.80 


.60-.80 






Pipe Fitting. 












198 2.88 




.41 


1. 10 






1.70 


.058 


•50 


•73 


I.16 


4.18 


2.51 


.110 


.62 


.41 


.24 


3.18 


Sug. 1.75-2-50 


und. .08 


.50-.80 


.60-. 80 






Pipe Fittings for Stiperheated Steam Lines. 








75 >-72 


.085 


.89 


.48 


-»7 


2.45 


75 1.40-1.60 


.06-.09 


.20-.40 


•45-^75 




3.00-3.25 


Sug. 1.50-1.75 


und. .08 


.20-.40 


.70-.90 




low 


Piston Rings. 












137 1-35 






.40 






1.60 


.08 


1. 15 


•35 


.60 




1.50-2.00 


.06-.C8 


.40-.60 


.45-.60 


•45-^55 


3-5° 


Sug. 1.50-2.CO 


und. .08 


.30-.50 


.40-.6C 




low 


Plow Points, Chilled. 












197 1. 20-1. 40 




low 






low 


1.20 


.090 


.30 


•50 


1.20 


3.20 


-75 


.090 


•30 


•30 


3.00 


3.20 


1.20 


.080 


.30 


1.25 




3.50 


Sug. .75-1-25 


und. .08 


.20-.30 


.80- 1 .0 






Printing Presses. See Machinery 


Castings. 









* " und." is abbreviated from under and " sug." from suggested. 



148 



FOUNDRY IRONS. 



Propeller Wheels. 











Comb. 


Total 


Ref. Silicon. 


Sulphur. 


Phos. 


Mang. 


Carb. 


Carb. 


Per cent. 


Per cent. 


Per cent. 


Per cent. 


Per cent. 


Per cent. 


1-15 




•32 


•5' 


.60 




1.40 


low 


.20 


.40 






Sug.* 1.00-1.75 


und.* .10 


.20-.40 


.60-1.0 




low 


Pulleys, Heavy. 












1-75 


.040 


•55 


•55 


•30 


3-57 


2.40 


.060 


.60 


.60 




3-75 


Sug. 1.75-2-25 


und. .09 


.50-.70 


.60-.80 






Pulleys, Light. 












64 2.20-2.80 


und. .08 


und. .70 


und. .70 






14 2.40 


und. .08 


•95 


.70 






2.72 


.040 


.50 


.66 






2.52 


.075 


•77 


.68 




3-37 


3-35 


.089 


.70 


•47 




3^42 


2.25 


.040 


•55 


•55 


.30 


3^57 


2.15 


.080 


.70 


.60 


.40 


3^55 


Sug. 2.25-2.75 


und. .08 


.60-.80 


.50-.70 






Pumps, Hand. 












2.30-2.75 


und. .08 


.60-1.0 


.30-.50 






Sug. 2.00-2.25 


und. .08 


.60-.80 


.50-.70 






Radiators. 












2.15 


low 


.80 


•45 


•50 


i-S^ 


2.45 


.104 


•44 


.40 


•35 


ZAO 


Sug. 2.00-2.25 


und. .08 


.60-.80 


.50-.70 


.50-.60 




Railroad Castings. 












64 2.20-2.80 


und. .08 


und. .70 


und. .70 






1 .40- 1 .80 


,o6-.o8 


.50-.80 


.45-.60 


.40-.65 


3-5° 


2.25 


.050 


.60 


•75 






1-75 


.070 


•85 


.60 






Sug. 1.50-2.25 


und. .08 


.40-.60 


.60-.80 






Retorts. See Heat Resistant Castings. 








Rolls, Chilled 












171 .50-1.00 


.01 -.06 


.20-. 80 


•15-15 


2.60-3.25 




171 .80 


.100 


.88 


.16 


.91 


2.84 


171 .71 


.058 


•54 


•39 


1.38 


3.00 


173 -65 


.050 


•25 


1.50 


•63 


3^50 


Sug, .60-.80 


.06-.08 


.20-. 40 


1. 0-1.2 




3.00-3.25 



• " und." is abbreviated from under and " sug " from suggested. 



CHEMICAL STANDARDS FOR IRON CASTINGS. 



149 



Rolls, Unchilled {sand cast) 













Comb. 


Total 


Ref. 


Silicon. 


Sulphur. 


Phos. 


Mang. 


Carb. 


Carb. 




Per cent. 


Per cent. 


Per cent. 


Per cent. 


Per cent. 


Per cent. 


171 


•75 


.030 


•25 


.66 


1.20 


4.10 


Scales. 














198 


1.67 




1.92 


1.90 






198 


2,12 




.61 


.80 






198 


1.70 




•63 


1.60 






Sug.* 


2.CX)-2.30 


und.* .08 


.60-1.0 


.50-.70 






Slaq Ca 


r Castings. 














1.76 


.075 


.63 


•79 


•56 


3-68 




2.00 


.030 


.70 








Sug. 


1.75-2.00 


und. .07 


und. .30 


.70-.90 







Smoke Stacks, Locomotive. See Locomotive Castings. 



Soil Pipe and Fitting. 





2.00 


,060 


.100 


.60 






Sug. 


1.75-2.25 


und. .09 


.50-.80 


.60-.80 






Steam 


Cylinders, Heavy. 












1. 41 


.092 


•38 


•39 








•95 


.lOO 


•30 


.90 


.80 


3^40 




1. 10 


.136 


•43 


•33 


•99 


3^30 




1. 00 


.080 


.20-. 30 


1. 00 


•75 


3.00 




1.35.1.50 


.080 


•50 


•75 




3^65 




1.20-1.40 


.04-.08 


.40-.50 


.70-.80 


.70-.80 


3.00-3.20 


III 


.90-1.20 


.09-. 1 2 


.20- .40 


.70-.90 




und. 3.50 


Sug. 


1. 00- 1. 25 


und. .10 


.20-.40 


.80-1.0 




low 


Steam 


Cylinders, Medi 


um. 










70 


1.66 


.065 


.70 


.90 






70 


1.60 


.063 


.72 


.85 






70 


1.70 


.070 


.70 


•75 






70 


1.70 


•075 


.60 


.92 




3-50 


14 


1.40-2.00 


.085 


.70 


.30-.70 






64 


1.50-2.00 


und. .08 


.35-.60 


.50-. 80 








1. 40- 1. 60 


und. .09 


.40-.90 


.40-.90 








1. 50- 1. 65 


.080 


.60 


.60-. 70 








1.50-1.80 


.070 


•43 


.76 







* " und." is abbreviated from under and " sug." from suggested. 



ISO 



FOUNDRY IRONS. 



Steam Cylinders, Medium — Continued. 













Comb. 


Total 


Ref. 


Silicon 


Sulphur. 


Phos. 


Mang. 


Carb. 


Carb. 




Per cent. 


Per cent. 


Per cent. 


Per cent. 


Per cent. 


Per cent. 




1.85 


.080 


.60 


.50-.60 


•50 


3^25-3-50 




1-75 


.100 


.65 


•55 




3^40-3^55 




1.32 


.136 


•43 


•38 


•99 


3-30 




1.12 


.085 


.40 


.70 


.70 


3-50 




2.00 


.100 


•50 


.70 


.40 


3^50 




2.00 


.070 


•30 


.60 








1.50 


.070 


. -75 


.70 




3.50 




1.59 


.109 


.60 


.38 




3.34 




1.86 




.29 


•55 


•52 






1.90 


.074 


.50 


•65 








1.56 


.061 


•45 


.78 






Sug.* 


1.25-1.75 


und.* .09 


.30-.SO 


.70-.90 






Steam 


Chests. See Locomotive Castings and Machinery Castings. 




Stove Plate. 












198 


2.90 




•73 


1.40 






171 


2.59 


.072 


.62 


.37 


•35 


3-30 


171 


3.19 


.084 


1. 16 


.38 


.33 


3.4 « 




2.75 


.050 


I. CO 


.80 


.18 


3.38 




2.79 


.077 


1.40 


•32 


.20 


3.22 




2.51 


.110 


.62 


.41 


.24 


3^18 




2.76 


•071 


•63 


•63 


•37 


3^50 




2,76 


.084 


•65 


•54 








2.50 


0.60 


1. 00 


.60 








2.60 


.050 


.60 


.60 








2.50-3.CO 


und. .10 


.60-.80 


.40-.60 




3.00-4.00 


Sug. 


2.25-2.75 


und. .08 


.60-.90 


.60..80 






Valves 


, Large. 












64 


1,20-1.50 


und. .09 


.35-.60 


.50-80 






136 


1. 00 


1. 00 


.50 


.90 








1.67 




.26 


•45 


.69 




Sug. 


I-25-I-75 


und. .09 


20-.40 


.80-1.0 






Valves, Small. 














1.70 


.058 


•50 


•74 


1. 16 


4.18 




2.23 


•07s 


.67 


.67 






Sug. 


1.75-2.25 


und. .08 


.30..50 


.60-.80 




low 


Valve Bushins;s. 


See Locomotive 


Castings and Machinery 


Castings. 





* " und." is abbreviated from under and " sug." from suggested. 



CHEMICAL STANDARDS FOR IRON CASTINGS. 



151 



IVater Heaters. 








Comb. 


Total 


Ref. Silicon. 


Sulphur. 


Phos. 


Mang. 


Carb. 


Carb. 


Per cent. 


Per cent. 


Per cent. 


Per cent. 


Per cent. 


Per cent, 


2.15 


.050 


.40 


.50 






Sug.* 2.00-2.25 


und.* .08 


.30-.50 


.60-.80 






Weaving Machinery. 


See Machinery Castings. 








Wheels, Large. 












2.10 


.040 


.40 


.70 






Sug. 1.50-2.00 


und. .09 


.30-.40 


.60-.80 






Wheels, Small. 












2.10 


.050 


.40 


.50 






1.60 


.083 


.60 


.39 






Sug. 1.75-2.CO 


und. .08 


.40-.50 


.50-.70 







Wheel Centers. See Locomotive Castings. 
White Iron Castins^s. 



•50 
.90 



.150 
.250 



.20 
.70 



•17 
•50 



2.90 



2.50 



Wood Working A/achinery. See Machinery Castings. 



DIRECTORY OF PIG IRON BRANDS. 

As an introduction to this section a brief description and 
discussion of the methods used for grading pig iron may be of 
service. 

Pig iron may be classified from several points of view. Ac- 
cording to the furnace practice it is cold, warm or hot blast 
iron. On the basis of the fuel used in its manufacture it is 
coke, anthracite, or charcoal pig. According to the method of 
casting it is sand, chill or machine cast. Finally, according to 
its chemical composition it is basic, Bessemer, malleable, 
foundry or forge iron. To completely describe any given 
brand we must classify it in all four ways ; thus for example, 
we might say of a certain iron that it was hot blast, coke 
chilled, basic. 

The terms used in the first three classifications hardly need 
definition since they are self-explanatory. With regard to the 



* " und." is abbreviated from under and " sug." from suggested. 



152 



FOUNDRY IRONS. 



last it may be well for the sake of completeness to define these 
grades. 

Basic iron means primarily a low silicon iron, the standard 
for this grade having silicon under i per cent., and sulphur 
under .050 per cent. 

Similarly, Bessemer iron means primarily phosphorus under 
.10 per cent. Standard Bessemer contains 1.00-1.25 P^^ cent, 
silicon, with sulphur under .050 per cent., but the grade is 
essentially based on low phosphorus. Irons with extra low 
phosphorus and variable silicon sometimes go under the desig- 
nation of " low phosphorus " iron. 

Finally, the terms foundry and forge embrace practically 
everything in the way of ordinary iron, these grades being 
subdivided again on the basis of silicon and sulphur content. 
The following subclassification of foundry and forge irons has 
been agreed upon by the blast furnace interests of the districts 
indicated. 



CIASSIFICATION AND GRADES OF FOUNDRY IRON. 



Si /icon. 



Sulphur. 



Southern Points. 














No. I Foundry 




2-75-3-25 per cent. 




.05 per 


cent. 


and under 


No. 2 




2.25-2.75 " " 




.05 " 


" 


(1 « 


No. 3 




1.75-2.25 " " 




.06 " 


" 


" " 


No. 4 




1.25-2,00 " 




.07 " 


" 


" " 


Gray Forge 




1.25-1.75 " " 




.08 " 


" 


<. « 


No. I Soft 




3.00 and over 




.05 " 


" 


" " 


No. 2 Soft 




2.50-3.25 per cent. 




.05 " 


" 


" " 


Eastern Points. 














No. I X 




2.75 per cent, and 


up 


.030 per 


cent 


and under 


No. 2X 




2.25-2.75 " " 




•045 " 


" 


" " 


No. 2 Plain 




1.75-2.25 " " 




.050 " 


" 


« « 


No. 3 Foundry 




I. 25-1.75 " " 




.065 " 


»' 


" " 


No. 2 Mill 




1.25 " " and 


under 


.065 " 


" 


" " 


Gray Forge 




1.50 " " 




.065 " 


" 


" up 


Mottled and White 


by 


Fracture 










Central West & Lake Points. 










No. I Foundry 




2.25-2.75 per cent. 




.05 per 


cent. 


and under 


No. 2 " 




1.75-2.25 " " 




.05 " 


(1 


i< « 


No. 3 " 




1.75 " " and under 


.05 " 


" 


" " 


Gray Forge 








.05 " 


i< 


" over 



CHEMICAL STANDARDS FOR IRON CASTINGS. 1 53 

Silicon. Sulphur. 
Buffalo Grading. 

Scotch 3.00 per cent, and over .05 per cent, and under 

No. I Foundry 2.50-3.00 " " ,05 " " •' " 

No. 2 " 2.00-2.50 " " ,05 " " " " 

No. 2 Plain 1.50-2.00 " " .05 " " " " 

No. 3 Foundry 1.50, " " (under) .05 " " " " 

Gray Forge .05 " " (over) 

Note. — If sulphur is in excess of maximum, it is graded as lower grade, regardless 
of silicon. 

Charcoal is not as a rule graded according to the above table, 
but is sold by fracture, by analysis, by chill tests, or by some 
special system of grading according to the custom of the maker 
and demand of the purchaser. 

Note. — Analyses of numerous brands of pig iron accompanied this report, but it 
has been deemed best not to place them in this work. 

GRADING PIG IRON, ALLOYS AND COKE. 

Sta)idard Afialyscs of tJic Various Grades of Foundry and 
Steel Making Irons, Ferro-alloys and Melting Fuels. 

The following grading of pig iron, ferro-alloys and coke was 
prepared by Eliot A. Kebler, manager of sales of Matthew 
Addy & Co., Cincinnati, the foreign pig iron classification being 
furnished him by W. \\\ Hearne, the Philadelphia partner of 
the same company : 

Standard Bessemer. — This iron is used principally for mak- 
ing acid Bessemer steel, this process burning out the impurities 
by blowing air through the molten Bessemer metal. 

As neither this, nor the acid open-hearth, process removes 
any phosphorus, it must be low. 

The standard specification is as follows : 

Silicon I to 2 per cent. 

Phosphorus not over o.io " 

Sulphur not over 0.05 " 

In the central section of this country it is sold per ton, 2,268 
pounds, if sand cast, or 2,240 pounds, if chill cast, except for 
special purposes, where the sand iron is broken, in which case 



154 FOUNDRY IRONS. 

it may be sold per ton, 2,240 pounds, and a charge of 25 cents 
per ton may be added for breaking. 

In the east and west (Chicago) it is always sold per ton, 
2,240 pounds. 

Malleable Bessemer or Malleable, — This is used for the 
manufacture of malleable castings. The usual specification is : 

Phosphorus not over 0.20 per cent 

Sulphur not over 0.05 " 

Silicon as specified, usually 0.75 to i .25 " 

or 1.25 to 1.75 " 

Pigs are usually broken if sand cast, and both sand and chill 
cast are sold per ton, 2,240 pounds, except from a few furnaces 
in the central district which still sell some unbroken and also 
some broken malleable per ton, 2,268 pounds. 

Low PJwspJiorus. — This is used for making acid steel extra 
low in phosphorus. The usual specification (sometimes called 
special low phosphorus) is : 

Si'icon I to 2 per cent. 

Phosphorus not over 0.035 " 

Sulphur not over 0.035 '' 

For baby Bessemer converters, the silicon is desired as high 
as possible. It is sold per ton, 2,240 pounds. 

Washed Metal. — This is Bessemer iron from which a large 
part of the phosphorus and sulphur, and practically all the 
silicon and manganese have been removed from the molten 
metal by one of the pig washing processes. It is largely used 
in acid open-hearth furnaces for steel castings and fire-boxsteel, 
and also in making crucible steel. It is sold by analysis, the 
four analyses recognized being: 

Phosphorus not over o.oio per cent. 

Sulphur not over 0.015 " 

Phosphorus not over 0.015 " 

Sulphur not over 0.020 " 

Phosphorus not over 0.020 " 

Sulphur not over 0.025 " 

Phosphorus not over 0.025 " 

Sulphur not over 0.030 " 



CHEMICAL STANDARDS FOR IRON CASTINGS. 1 55 

It is cast on an iron plate, and comes in irregular pieces 
about 8 inches square. It is sold per ton, 2,240 pounds. 

Basic. — This iron is used for making basic steel and can 
contain any phosphorus, as the basic flux and lining by com- 
bining with the phosphorus prevent it from entering the steel. 
As silicon attacks the lining and requires more flux, it is always 
specified under i per cent., and the basic pig is always sand- 
less ; that is, cast in chill molds. The sulphur is specified 
under 0.05. Basic iron is sold per ton, 2,240 pounds. 

Iron Graded by Fracture. — This method of grading is being 
rapidly superseded by analysis grading. 

No. I Foundry. — Fracture contains large crystals. 

No. 2 Foundry. — This is considered the standard and con- 
tains medium-size crystals, say yi inch square, with no spot 
larger than i inch diameter without crystals, although pig can 
be close for i inch along edges. 

No J. Foundry. — Contains small crystals; fracture is close. 

East of Altoona, Pa., and throughout all of New York state 
these grades are: No. iX, No. 2X, No. 2 plain. 

No. I is the highest priced, the usual differential being 50 
cents a ton. 

Forge has a gray fracture with practically no crystals. 

Mottled shows small white spots, giving the fracture a 
mottled appearance. Most of the carbon is in the combined 
state. 

White shows a white fracture, and all carbon is in the com- 
bined state. 

These last two grades are usually high in sulphur and low in 
silicon. 

In the South, iron which has a silvery fracture is graded as 
follows : 

No. I soft (sold same price as No. i foundry). 

No. 2 soft (sold same price as No, 2 foundry). 

No. 4 foundry (price is between No. 3 foundry and gray 
forge). 

Foundry pigs cast in sand are always broken, and all the fur- 



156 FOUNDRY IRONS. 

naces outside of a few of the central district irons are now sold 
per ton, 2,240 pounds. These few sell 2,268 pounds to a ton, 
the extra 28 pounds being added to cover sand clinging to the 
pig- 
Forge, mottled and white iron may be unbroken or broken 
and is sold per ton, 2,240 pounds, with the exception of some 
central district irons, which are sold per ton, 2,268 pounds. 

All pig iron cast in chills is sold by analysis per ton, 2,240 
pounds. 

American Foundry and Forge Iron by Analysis. — A com- 
mittee appointed by the blast furnace interests has made the 
following classification by analysis, and the tendency is to sell 
iron by analysis instead of fracture. 

SOUTHERN POIflTS. 

Silicon, per cent. Sulphur, per cent. 

No. I foundry 2.75 to 3.25 0.05 and under 

No. 2 foundry 2.25 to 2.75 0.05 and under 

No. 3 foundry 1.75102.25 0.06 and under 

No. 4 foundry 1-25 to 2.00 0.065 ^"<i under 

Gray forge 1.25101.75 0.07 and up 

No. I soft 3.00 and over 0.05 and under 

No. 2 soft . . 2.50 to 3.25 0.05 and under 

EASTERN POINTS. 

Silicon, per cent. Sulphur, per cent. 

No. IX 2.75 and up 0.03 and under 

No. 2X foundry 2.25 to 2.75 0.045 ^^^ under 

No. 2 plain 1.57102.25 0.05 and under 

No, 3 foundry 1.25101.75 0.065 and under 

No. 2 mill 1.25 and under 0.065 "^^^ under 

Gray forge 1.50 and under 0.065 ^'^^ "P 

Note — If sulphur is in excess of maximum, the iron is graded as lower grade re- 
gardless of silicon. 

CENTRAL WEST AND LAKE POINTS. 

Silicon, per cent. Sulphur, per cent. 

No. I foundry 2.25 to 2.75 0.05 and under 

No. 2 foundry i-75 to 2.25 0.05 and under 

No. 3 foundry 1.75 and under 0.05 and under 

Gray forge 0.05 and over 



CHEMICAL STANDARDS FOR IRON CASTINGS. 1 57 

BUFFALO DISTRICT. 

Silicon, per cent. Sulphur, per cent. 

Scotch 3.00 and over 0.05 and under 

No. I foundry 2.50 to 3.00 0.05 and under 

No. 2 foundry* 2.00 to 2.50 0.05 and under 

No. 2 plain 1.50 to 2.00 0.05 and under 

No. 3 foundry 1.50 (under) 0.05 and under 

Gray forge 0.05 (over). 

CHICAGO POINTS. 

Silicon, per cent. Sulphur, per cent. 

No. I foundry 2.25 to 2.50 0.02 to 0.05 

No. 2 foundry 1.75 to 2.25 0.02 to 0.05 

No. 3 foundry 1.35 to 1.75 0.06 and under 

Scotch 2.50 to 3.00 0.05 and under 

Silvery 2.00 to 3.50 0.05 and under 

Gray forge 0.06 and over. 

Sampling. — The American Society for Testing Materials 
recommends the following method of sampling, which has been 
adopted by the American Foundrymen's Association : 

In all contracts where pig iron is sold by chemical analysis 
each car load or its equivalent shall be considered as a unit. At 
least one pig shall be selected at random from each four tons of 
every carload, and so as to fairly represent it. 

Drillings shall be taken so as to fairly represent the fracture 
surface of each pig, and the sample analyzed shall consist of an 
equal quantity of drillings from each pig, well mixed and ground 
before analysis. 

In case of disagreement between buyer and seller, an inde- 
pendent analyst, to be mutually agreed upon, shall be engaged 
to sample and analyze the iron. In this event each pig shall be 
taken to represent every two tons. 

* No. 2 foundry and No. 2X foundry are the standards, and No. 2 soft sells at the 
same price. No. i foundry or No. i soft sells usually 50 cents higher, and " silvery " 
still higher, depending on silicon contents. The other grades decrease about 50 cents 
a grade. 

" Scotch " indicates a more fluid iron, usually higher in phosphorus and silicon 
than the ordinary furnace run. 

In selling by analysis the tendency is to do away with the numbers and merely 
give the limits in silicon and sulphur. 



158 FOUNDRY IRONS. 

The cost of this sampHng and analysis shall be borne by the 
buyer if the shipment is proved up to specifications, and by the 
seller if otherwise. 

High Silicon Irons. — Softeners are sold by silicon contents 
and run from 6 to 10 per cent, silicon, the price increasing 
about 50 cents per unit of silicon. 

Silvery irons run from about 3>4 to 5^^ per cent, of silicon. 
This last class is sometimes divided into No. i Silvery, which is 
the higher silicon, and No. 2 Silvery, the lower. 

The still higher silicon irons are shown under ferro-alloys. 

In addition to this, there is a special high silicon, usually 50 
per cent, silicon, although it is sometimes sold as high as 75 per 
cent, silicon, made in an electric furnace. 

Ferro-M anganesc . — This is ordinarily sold with a guarantee 
of 80 per cent, manganese, this being the only element which is 
guaranteed. 

Owing to the lower phosphorus in English cokes, the Eng- 
lish ferro-manganese ordinarily runs a little lower in phosphorus 
than that made in Germany. 

Foreign Iron. — All pig iron is sold in England per ton, 2,240 
pounds, and in France and Germany per 1,000 kilos. 

In England and Europe generally, iron is not called Bessemer, 
as both acid and basic Bessemer converters are used. 

Hematite. 

Silicon about 2.50 per cent. 

Sulphur usually about 0.035 " 

Phosphorus usually 0.035 " 

It seldom running over 0.06 " 

West Coast hematite shows manganese under 0.50; East 
Coast hematite has manganese over 0.75. 

Thomas Gilchrist, or Thomas Pig Iron. — This is used in basic 
Bessemer converters and usually analyzes about : 

Silicon 0.50 per cent. 

Phosphorus 2.50 " 

Manganese 2.50 " 

Sulphur up to 0.20 " 



CHEMICAL STANDARDS FOR IRON CASTINGS. 1 59 

Opcn-Juarth Basic. — There is practically no open-hearth basic 
in Europe or England. At Middleboro the Bells are making 
open-hearth basic, but their pig analyzes: 

Silicon 0.75 to 1.50 per cent. 

Phosphorus i .00 to i .65 " 

Sulphur up to 0.20 " 

They use a mixer and a desulphurizing bath. 

English Foundry Iron. — This is graded by fracture and no 
analysis is guaranteed. The rules for standard foundry pig iron 
issued by the London Metal Exchange are as follows, and it will 
be noted that instead of grading by silicon content, as in this 
country, sulphur seems to be the ruling element: 

Silicon, per cent. Phosphorus, per cent. Sulphur, per cent. 

No. I, 23^ to 3)^ not over 1,00 not over 0.04 

No. 2, 2i^ to 3^4' not over 1.25 not over 0.05 

No. 3, I not over 3)^ not over 1.65 not over 0.08 

No. 4, I ....... not over 3 not over 1.75 not over o.io 

The ordinary English pig irons can be divided into two 
groups, with 

Manganese under 0.75 per cent. 

And Manganese. say 0.75 to 1. 10 " 

The brand and grade mostly imported into this country is : • 
Middlesboro, No, j. Analysis unguaranteed, but usually 
shows : 

Phosphorus 1.40 to 1.50 per cent. 

Manganese 0.40 to 0.75 " 

Silicon, usually high say 2.50 " 

Sulphur 0.02 to 0.05 " 

The No. I has practically the same analysis, except that the 
sulphur is extremely low. 

All Mine Pig Iron. — Analysis about as follows : 

Phosphorus 0.20 to 0.70 per cent. 

Sulphur o.c6 to 0.20 " 

Manganese under 0.75 " 



l6o FOUNDRY IRONS. 

The Scotch pig iron is also sold by fracture, a typical analysis 
of No. 3 being 

Phosphorus 0.60 to 1,15 per cent. 

Manganese 1. 10 to 1.80 " 

Sulphur about 0.03 " 

Silicon about 2 to 2.50 "• 

American Charcoal Irons. — These irons are divided into two 
classes : 

Cold Blast, which is made in small furnaces with a capacity 
of about four to eight tons a day, blown with unhealed air. 

Warm Blast, in which the blast is heated from 500 to 900 
degrees Fahr. 

Cold Blast Iron. — This iron is used principally for making 
chilled rolls and is graded as follows outside the Lake Superior 
region : 

No. I, highest silicon, lowest sulphur iron with a fracture like 
a No, 3 coke iron. 

No. 2 has a fracture like a forge and will chill V« inch when 
cast against an iron plate. 

No. 3 shows a ^-^ -inch chill. 

No. 4 a 3/H-inch to ^-inch chill. 

No. 5 a ^-inch to i >2 -inch chill, the face of the pig being 
"strongly mottled. 

No. 6 is white, all of the carbon being in a combined state. 

Warm Blast Iron. — This iron is used principally for car-wheel 
work, for strengthening general machinery castings, and making 
rolls. 

Outside of the Lake Superior region it is graded as follows : 

No. I highest silicon, lowest sulphur iron, with a fracture like 
a No. 2 coke iron. 

No. 2 has a fracture like a No. 3 coke iron. 

No. 3 has a fracture similar to forge. 

No. 4 will show a chill of about % inch if cast against an iron 
plate. 

No. 5, a chill of about X '"ch to ^ inch. 



CHEMICAL STANDARDS FOR IRON CASTINGS. l6l 

No. 6 will show a chill of about ^ to i >^ inches and is 
mottled when cast in sand. 

No. 7 has a white fracture. Carbon is all combined. 

The Lake Superior charcoal irons are graded, not by frac- 
ture, but by analysis, the following classifications being most 
generally used. 

Silicon, per cent. 
Average. Min. Max. Chill. 

A Scotch 2.50 2.38 2.62 

B Scotch 2.25 2.13 2.37 

C Scotch 2.00 1.88 2.12 

Low I 1.75 1.63 1.87 

High 1 1.50 1.38 1.62 

Low 2 1.25 1. 13 1.37 

High 2 i.oo .88 1. 12 

Low 3 75 .63 .87 Trace to )/^ in. 

High 3..-. 56 .50 .62 1^ to % in. 

Low 4 .44 .38 .50 % to I in. 

High 4 32 .25 .38 I to 1 1^ in. 

Low 5 20 .15 .25 Low Mottled. 

High 5 ••• .10 .05 .15 White Mottled. 

No. 6 00 .00 .05 White. 

Phosphorus > 0.15 to 0.23 

Manganese 0.30 to 0.70 

Sulphur Trace to 0.018 

Coke. — This is divided into the following classes : 

Foundry. — This coke is selected from ovens which have 
burned 72 hours. It is always made on Mondays and Tues- 
days, as no work is done at the ovens on Sunday. It may be 
made on other days of the week by shutting down another day. 
It is hard and large and has a bright appearance, caused by the 
carbon condensing or fusing on the surface. This coke is used 
in cupolas for melting iron and for heavy forging work. 

Furnace. — This is coke that is burned 48 hours and is used in 
smelting ores in blast furnaces. It is sometimes used in cupola 
practice. 

Standard Foundry and Furnace Coke. — Sulphur under i per 
cent., the lower the better. Ash not over 13 per cent. ; quality 
improves with the reduction in ash, until percentage is reduced 
to a point where structure is weakened. 
I I 



1 62 FOUNDRY IRONS. 

Smelter coke is either of the above, running, say, over 1.20 
per cent, in sulphur. While this higher sulphur renders it un- 
desirable for smelting or melting iron, it does no harm in the 
smelting of most other ores. 

Stock. — This coke is stocked on the oven yard instead of being 
loaded direct into the car. If care is used in selecting this coke 
when loading, it is as good as if freshly drawn, with the excep- 
tion that it is somewhat broken up by the double handling and 
is discolored. 

Soft, Heating or Jamb. — This coke is the cullings from the 
above classes and is made up of the backs, fronts, and coke 
around the oven doors. This is often jncorrectly called stock 
coke. 

Crushed Coke. — This is crushed and graded according to size 
into the following classes : 

Egg, large stove, small stove, chestrmt, yk -ineh pea, ^ -inch pea, 
dust. The first four grades are used for house heating, small 
forgings, etc., the pea coke for chemical works, etc., and the 
dust for packing the bottoms of soaking pits and crucible fur- 
naces. 

Ferro- Alloys. — Owing to the fact that many of the ferro-alloys 
have only been in use for a comparatively short time, the fixed 
standards have not in many cases been adopted. One compan}- 
designates its material by showing the number of units of carbon 
by " X " and the kind of alloy by its letter symbol, thus a ferro- 
chrome containing 9.70 carbon, it would designate 9 x C. 

All foreign ferro-alloys are sold to the American consumers 
f. o. b. cars American seaboard, based on present duties, United 
States custom-house weights at seaboard to govern settlement, 
and upon certificate of foreign chemist of repute to be conclu- 
sive as to quality. 

Fer^'o-aluminum is sold containing 10 per cent, aluminum. 
Higher percentages are also used in iron and steel, No. i being 
guaranteed over 99 per cent, pure aluminum. No. 2 is guaran- 
teed over 90 per cent, aluminum, with no injurious impurities 
for alloying with iron and steel. It is sold by the pound. 



CHEMICAL STANDARDS FOR IRON CASTINGS. 1 63 

^S"..^. M. Alloy. — This is an alloy of silicon, aluminum, man- 
ganese and iron. One partial analysis showed: 

Silicon 8.01 per cent. 

Aluminum 6.80 " 

Manganese 8.39 " 

Phosphorus 0-075 " 

Ferro-chrome usually funs 60 per cent, to 68 per cent, chro- 
mium. It is graded per unit of chromium and per unit of car- 
bon, the price increasing with the chromium and decreasing with 
the increase in carbon, these elements being guaranteed. If low 
in carbon, it is sometimes called " mild." 

A typical analysis only guaranteed as above is as follows : 

Mild, per cent. Ordinary, per cent. 

Chromium 64.80 66.00 

Iron 33.43 21.91 

Carbon i .2 1 9.90 

Silicon 0.29 1.40 

Phosphorus 0.027 °'°7 

Sulphur 0.02 0.22 

Manganese 0.09 0.20 

Copper o. 1 2 .... 

Aluminum .... 

It is sold per ton, 2,240 pounds. 

Ferro-maiigaresc contains over 40 per cent, manganese. 

Standard ferro-inanganesc is only guaranteed to average 80 
per cent, or over manganese. The English runs lower in phos- 
phorus than that from the continent. A typical analysis, man- 
ganese only guaranteed, is as follows: 

English. 

Manganese 80.50 per cent. 

Iron by dif 11.50 " 

Silicon 1.65 " 

Phosphorus 0.23 " 

Carbon 6.78 

Sulphur 

It is sold per ton, 2, 240 pounds. 

Ferro-molybdenum is sold per pound of pure molybdenum 



1 64 FOUNDRY IRONS. 

contained, regardless of the percentage of other material. Thus, 
if a pound of 80 per cent, ferro-molybdenum is purchased, i^ 
pounds of the alloy will be received. A typical analysis, the 
units of molybdenum only guaranteed, is as follows: 

Molybdenum 79- ' 5 per cent. 

Iron • 17.55 

Carbon 3.24 " 

Phosphorus ... 0.028 " 

Sulphur 0.021 " 

Nickel. — As ordinarily used in steel this is guaranteed over 
99 per cent, nickel and is sold by the pound. 

Fcrro-iiickel is also supplied with 25, 35, 50 or 75 per cent, 
of nickel as specified. The balance of analysis outside of the 
nickel and iron runs about: 

Carbon 0.85 per cent. 

Silicon 0.25 " 

Sulphur 0.015 " 

Phosphorus 0.025 " 

Ferro-phosphorus contains over 10 per cent, of phosphorus. 
The foreign is guaranteed 22 to 24 per cent, phosphorus. 

A typical analysis of foreign, the phosphorus alone being 
guaranteed, is as follows: 

Phosphorus 21.40 per cent. 

Iron 75.03 

Manganese 0.70 " 

Silicon 1 .63 " 

Carbon i . 1 7 " 

The domestic is guaranteed : 

Phosphorus 18 to 22 per cent. 

Sulphur under 0.05 " 

Manganese under 0.50 " 

It is sold per ton, 2,240 pounds. 
Phosphor-M aiiganese . — A typical analysis is : 



CHEMICAL STANDARDS FOR IRON CASTINGS. 1 65 

• 

Manganese 65.00 per cent. 

Phosphorus 25.00 " 

Iron 7.00 " 

Carbon 2.00 " 

Silicon 1. 00 " 

Silico-Spicgel contains manganese 17 to 22 per cent, and sil- 
icon 6 to 12 per cent. The standard is guaranteed as follows: 

Manganese 18 to 20 per cent. 

Silicon, 9 to 1 1 per cent average 10 " 

A typical analysis, nothing but manganese and silicon guar- 
anteed, is as follows: 

Manganese 20.32 per cent. 

Iron by dif 68.02 " 

Silicon lO'33 " 

Carbon 1.26 " 

Phosphorus 0.07 " 

Sulphur " 

It is sold per ton, 2,240 pounds. 

Special High Silicon contains over 40 per cent, silicon. It 
is guaranteed 50 per cent, silicon with an allowance of $1.75 per 
unit either way. The other elements are not guaranteed. A 
typical analysis is : 

Silicon 49-90 per cent. 

Manganese 0.16 " 

Carbon 0.55 " 

Phosphorus 0.075 " 

Sulphur 0.018 " 

It is also guaranteed 75 per cent, silicon, with an allowance 
of $2.50 per unit either way. It is sold per ton, 2,240 pounds. 

Bessemer Ferro-Silicon. — This runs 8 to 16 per cent, in sili- 
con,, the price usually increasing or decreasing $1 per unit. 

The "Domestic" is guaranteed silicon as specified 8 to 16 
per cent. 

Phosphorus • not over o.io per cent. 

Sulphur not over 0.05 " 



l66 FOUNDRY IRONS. 

The " Foreign " is not guaranteed, but phosphorus and sul- 
phur, while not guaranteed, run very low. It is sold per ton 
2,240 pounds. For lower percentages of silicon see ' High 
Silicon Irons." 

Ferto- Sodium vs, usually sold with 25 percent, metallic sodium 
and free from lime or excess of carbon. 

Spiegel, Spiegel- Eisen or Mirror I r 071 contains 10 to 40 per 
cent, of manganese. The standard is guaranteed : 

Per cent. 

Manganese, 1 8 to 22 per cent average 20 

Phosphorus o.io or under. 

The silicon limits are sometimes specified, as it is desirable 
to know how the same will run. A typical analysis only guar- 
anteed as above, is as follows : 

Manganese 20. 150 per cent. 

Iron 73.6 1 

Silicon 0.76 

Carbon 5.18 

Sulphur 0.002 

Phosphorus O-OSS 

It is sold per ton, 2,240 pounds. 

Ferro-Titaniuin. — The lower titanium contents is sold guar- 
anteed only in titanium, which is 10 to 12 per cent., and is sold 
by the pound of alloy. 

A typical analysis is : 

Titanium ii.2i per cent. 

Iron by dif. 87.68 " 

Carbon 0.67 " 

Silicon 0.37 " 

Phosphorus 0.04 " 

Sulphur 0.03 " 

If higher in titanium, it is sold per pound of pure titanium 
contained, regardless of the percentage of other material, the 
titanium above being specified. A typical analysis is as follows: 



CHEMICAL STANDARDS FOR IRON CASTINGS. 1 67 

Titanium S^-SO per cent. 

Iron 44.18 " 

Carbon 2.82 " 

Manganese 0.14 " 

Arsenic i.io " 

Sulphur 0.04 " 

Phosphorus 0.021 " 

Aluminum. 0.41 " 

Ferro-Tungstcn is sold per pound per unit of tungsten con- 
tained, the price increasing with the increase in tungsten and 
decreasing with the increase in carbon. A typical analysis, the 
tungsten and carbon only being guaranteed, is as follows: 

Tungsten 85.47 per cent. 61.20 per cent. 

Iron 13-90 " 33.C2 " 

Carbon 0.30 " 2.97 " 

Silicon 0.13 '♦ 0.47 "• 

Manganese 0.09 " 1.88 " 

Aluminum 0.00 " 0.3 1 " 

Phosphorus 0.019 " ^•°3 " 

Sulphur 0.025 " 0'°3 " 

Ferro- Vanadium is sold per pound at price per unit of vana- 
dium contained ; that is, if alloy contains 20 percent, vanadium 
and selling price is five cents per unit, it would cost $1 per 
pound of alloy. A typical analysis as made by one foreign 
company, vanadium alone being guaranteed, is as follows: 

Vanadium 36.0 per cent. 

Manganese 0.6 " 

Iron 61.0 " 

Carbon 0.4 " 

Silicon 0.9 " 

Aluminum 0.8 " 



CHAPTER XII. 



Analysis and Foundry Chemists. 
Inaccuracy of Analysis. — One of the obstacles to the success 
of chemistry in foundry irons has been inaccuracy in the 
analysis of iron. In the early stages of the employment of 
chemists by foundrymen, it was found that their analyses fre- 
quently differed very materially from those furnished from the 
furnace with the iron. This led to the declaration by foundry- 
men that blast furnace analysis could not be depended upon for 
accuracy and a counter claim by blast-furnacemen that the 
foundry chemist's analysis was not correct. To determine who 
was right in the matter, samples taken from the same pigs of 
three different grades of iron were sent for analysis to twenty 
different firms employing competent chemists. The report of 
analysis from these firms as read before the Pittsburg Foundry- 
men's Association, by Thos. D. West, March 28th, 1898 is 

given below. 

TABLE I. 

Comparative Analyses of Foundry Iron. 



No. 


Laboratory. 


Sil. 
1-95 


Sul. 
.011 


Phos. 
.60 


Man. 
•63 


G. C. 

3^35 


C. C. 


T. C. 


I 


* A 


.48 


3^83 


2 


B 


2.00 


.010 


•543 


.56 


.... 




4.27 


3 


C 


2.02 


.0045 


.615 


•1^ 


2.99 


.64 


3^63 


4 


D 


2.05 


.010 


•59 


.69 


3.20 


■52 


3^72 


5 


E 


2.05 


.C07 


•59 


.60 


3^41 


•45 


3.86 


6 


F 


2.06 


.011 


.617 


.62 






3^85 


7 


G 


2.06 


.013 


•579 


.... 








8 


H 


2.1 1 


.011 


.617 


•54 


3.12 


.80 


3-92 


9 


I 


2.13 


.006 


•503 


•56 


3^04 


•44 


3^48 


10 


J 


2.158 


.018 








.. 




II 


K 


2.16 


.015 


.612 


•550 








12 


L 


2.19 


.012 


.591 


.504 


3-29 


.82 


4. II 


13 


M 


2.21 


.008 


.61 


.46 


2.82 


•36 


3^18 


14 


n 


2.21 


.018 


.600 


•546 


3^59 


•32 


3^91 


15 





2.22 


.020 


•54 


•59 


3-32 


•25 


3^57 


16 


p 


2.224 


.018 


.603 


•59 


3^42 


•29 


3^7i 


17 


p 


2.219 


.019 


.614 


.60 


3^45 


•23 


3^68 


18 


p 


2.228 


.017 


.610 
.114 


.58 
•23 


3-36 
•77 


.40 


3^76 


Grea 


test Variation. 


.27 


•0155 


•59 


i.og 



♦ Corresponding letters in the four tables signify that analyses are from the same 
laboratory or firm. 

(168) 



ANALYSIS AND FOUNDRY CHEMISTS. 



169 



TABLE II. 
Comparative Analyses of Bessemer Iron. 



No. 


Laboratory. 


Sil. 


Sul. 


Phos. 


Man. 
•73 


G. C. 
3.19 


C. C. 

•75 


T. C. 


19 


A 


2.12 


.060 


.088 


3-94 


20 


C 


2.15 


.048 


.094 


•93 


2.78 


•85 


3.63 


21 


D 


2.20 


.056 


.c86 


•91 


3.10 


.64 


3^74 


22 


F 


2.21 


.051 


•093 


•95 






3^8i 


23 


S 


2.25 


.058 


.090 


.90 






... 


24 


E 


2.29 


.048 


.080 


1.09 


3-14 


•57 


3-71 


2S 


R 


2.30 


.051 


.087 


.910 


3^46 


•50 


3^96 


26 


B 


2-31 


.056 


.083 


.89 






3^8o 


27 


K 


2.31 


.060 


.0865 


.890 




.. 





28 





2.32 


.051 


.086 


.84 


3.06 


•25 


3-31 


29 


L 


2.32 


•055 


.III 


.809 


3-51 


.84 


4^35 


30 


Q 


2-37 


.058 


.087 


•83 


2.92 


.82 


3^74 


31 


P 


2.445 


.064 


.cX6 


•93 


3^15 


.67 


3.82 


32 


P 


2.402 


.066 


.084 


.98 


3.20 


.68 


3^78 


33 


P 


2.413 
•32 


.060 


.086 
.031 


.96 


3.12 
•73 


.72 
.60 


3^84 


Grea 


test Variation. 


.018 


•36 

1 


1.04 



TABLE IIL 
Comparative Analyses of Charcoal Iron. 



No. 


Laboratory. 
D 


Sil. 
■95 


Sul. 


Phos. 
.89 


Man. 


G. C. 


c. c. 


T. C. 


34 


.019 


1.76 


2.90 


.78 


3^68 


35 


A 


•97 


.017 


.96 


1.77 


3.10 


.88 


398 


36 


L 


•97 


.013 


.929 


1-795 


2.94 


•91 


3^85 


37 


E 


.98 


.016 


•91 


1.80 


3.01 


•79 


3.80 


38 


R 


.98 


.022 


•957 


1.98 


3-25 


.60 


.3^85 


39 


C 


.99 


.016 


.956 


1.90 


2.84 


1.02 


3^86 


40 


T 


1. 00 


.016 


•952 


1.90 


2.69 


.48 


3-17 


41 


F 


1.02 


.017 


.948 


1-93 


.... 




3-95 


42 


B 


1.04 


.C2I 


.906 


1.83 






3-7b 


43 


N 


1.09 


•033 


•932 


1.768 


3-30 


•44 


3^74 


44 


P 


1. 161 


,027 


•931 


1.85 


3.20 


.56 


3^76 


45 


P 


1. 152 


.025 


•930 


1.89 


3.28 


•44 


3^72 


46 


P 


^•i57 

.21 


.024 



.020 


.939 

.067 


1.90 


3-25 


.48 

.58 


3-73 


Grea 


test Variation. 


.22 


.61 


•30 



I/O 



FOUNDRY IRONS. 



TABLE IV. 
Firms and Chemists Furnishing Comparative Analyses. 



Laboratory. 



A 
B 
C 
D 

E 

F 
G 

H 
I 

J 
K 

L 
M 

N 

O 
P 

Q 



Analyses. 

3 Sets. 

3 Sets. 

3 Sets. 

3 Sets. 

3 Sets. 
3 Sets. 
I Set. 

I I Set. 
I I Set. 

1 Set. 

2 Sets. 

' 3 Sets. 

1 Set. 

2 Sets, 

2 Sets. 
9 Sets. 
I Set. 



R 


2 Sets 


S 


I Set. 


T 


I Set. 



Concerns Furnishing Analyses. 



Buffalo Furnace Co., Buffalo, N. Y., 

Frank Hersh, Chemist. 
Carnegie Steel Co., Cochran, Pa., 

J. M. Camp, Chemist. 
Tennessee Coal, Iron & Railroad Co., Birmingham, Ala. 

J. R. Harris, Chemist. 
Embreville Iron Co., EmbreviUe, Tenn., 

F. E. 1 hompson, Chemist. 
Phillips Testing Laboratory, Birmingham, Ala. 
Illinois Steel Co., So. Chicago, 111. 
Spearman Iron Co., Sharpsville, Pa., 

W. E. Dickinson, Chemist. 
Thomas Iron Co., Hokendauqua, Pa. 
Everett Furnace, Everett, Pa., 

F. R. Bennett, Chemist. 
Booth, Garrett & Blair, Philadelphia, Pa. 
Crane Iron Co., Catasauqua, Pa., 

H. A. Krauss, Chemist. 
Hamilton Furnace Co., Hamilton, Ontario. 
James C. Foster, Sheffield, Ala. 
Warwick Iron Co., Pottstown, Pa., 

Wm. A. Stephan, Chemist. 
Andrews & Hitchcock Iron Co., Voungstown, Ohio. 
Dr. R. Moldenke, Met. Eng.. Pittsburg, Pa. 
Bethlehem Iron Co., So. Bethlehem, Pa., 

A. L. Colby, Met. Eng. 
Claire Furnace Co., Sharpsville, Pa., 

D. K. Smith, Chemist. 
Stewart Iron Co., Sharon, Pa., 

E. R. Sanborn, Chemist. 
Superior Charcoal Iron Co., Detroit, Mich., 

W. P. Putnam, Chemist. 



All the drillings for these analyses were taken from the same 
bar of pig iron and thoroughly mixed before samples of them 
were sent to the chemists, and should have shown precisely the 
same analysis. Yet no two of them show exactly the same per 
cent, of the various metalloids. In some cases the variation is 
so slight that two different irons showing these analyses would 
practically produce the same quality of iron in castings. But 
the extremes in carbon in the foundry iron, for instance, would 
indicate two different grades of iron that, if melted for the same 
grade of casting, would not give satisfactory results in each 



ANALYSIS AND FOUNDRY CHEMISTS. 171 

case. These analyses were made by experienced chemists in 
well equipped laboratories. The question naturally arises, what 
would have been the results had they been made by inexperi- 
enced chemists in poorly equipped laboratories with analytic 
material of unknown purity? It is this uncertainty of the accur- 
racy of analysis, even when made under the most favorable 
conditions, that has more than anything else destroyed its value 
in the estimation of foundrymen. For although chemists have 
endeavored to attribute this variation in results to different 
methods of analysis and diversity in samples, they have not 
been able to overcome the difficulty. Founders fail to see how 
an iron can show totally different analyses indicating two dif- 
ferent grades of iron, or to understand how this iron can be 
suitable for two grades of castings, one requiring a hard and 
the other a soft iron. Yet analyses of the same iron made by 
two different chemists have indicated this to be the case, as will 
be seen by reference to the above table. And even wider 
variations than these have been found by foundrymen when 
having analytical work done by different chemists. 

Blast-Furnace Analysis. — It has come to be the practice for 
furnacemen making foundry iron to furnish to the founder with 
each car or shipment of iron an analysis indicating the quality 
of iron in each car or shipment of less than a car load. These 
analyses are made from a number of samples taken from dif- 
ferent parts of each cast from the furnace and are supposed to 
fairly represent the per cent, of various elements or metalloids 
the iron of each cast contains. These casts are piled separately 
in the furnace-yard and numbered. The samples taken from 
each for analysis are correspondingly numbered and, when 
analyzed, the analysis is placed opposite the number in the re- 
cord book. When shipments are made casts are selected from 
this book, the analysis of which shows the iron to contain the 
per cent, of various elements best suited for the grade of cast- 
ings to be cast from it. The iron is sold to show the analysis 
which practice has show to produce the quality of iron in the 
castings required for them. Should the iron prove too hard or 



172 FOUNDRY IRONS. 

too soft, the analysis is not correct and the furnaceman has to re- 
place the iron with another shipment, or lose his customer. 
The chemist must therefore be accurate in his determinations 
or lose his job, for he has no chance to shift the responsibility 
for inaccuracy. There is therefore every reason to expect that 
the analysis furnished with each car or shipment of iron from 
the furnace is accurate and has been made for every element 
having an effect upon the qualit}' of iron when remelted and 
run into castings. There appears to be no reason why this 
analysis should not answer the purpose of the founder in mak- 
ing his mixtures equally as well as an analysis, even if accurate, 
by his own chemist. This is the view many foundrymen take 
of analysis and depend entirely upon that furnished from the 
furnace. 

Cost of Analysis. — The cost of analysis seems to be a diffi- 
cult matter to determine owing to the variation in price charged 
by different chemists and discount allowed for a certain amount 
of work given to them by the founder each month, but may be 
said to vary from fifty cents to three dollars for each element 
the foundry desires to have the iron analyzed for. At the 
minimum rate it would cost three dollars to have an iron analyzed 
for the per cent, of what are considered the six most important 
elements in cast iron, namely, silicon, manganese, phosphorus, 
sulphur, graphite, and combined carbon. Should the per cent, 
of other elements be desired an additional cost would be incurred. 
This represents the lowest price for what is termed contract 
work. For only an occasional anah^sis a higher price is charged 
by all chemists and with some the minimum charge is from one 
to three dollars for a determination for per cent of each ele- 
ment. The expense of a laboratory in which the founder 
could have his own work done, would be a suitable room for 
the purpose the cost of which would depend upon whether it is 
an available room at the plant or whether it has to be built; an 
outlay of $100 for laboratory apparatus, the keeping-up of this 
apparatus, which is quite an item as it consists to quite a large 
extent of glass and the breakage is considerable ; supply of 



ANALYSIS AND FOUNDRY CHEMISTS. 1 73 

acid and chemicals for analysis, gas for analytical purposes, and 
an experienced chemist at a cost of from $5 per day up. 

fcstiug iMboratorics. — At almost every foundry center in 
this country, chemical laboratories have been established for 
doing foundry analytical work, testing etc.-, saving to founders 
the expense of fitting up and maintaining a laboratory and 
employing a chemist at their plants. These laboratories are 
known as testing laboratories. As the chemistry of foundry 
iron is only a manipulation of these irons with the aid of 
chemistry, the success of which manipulation depends to a very 
large extent upon a practical knowledge of the irons gained by 
melting and mixing them, these laboratories have an advantage 
over the foundry chemist in their extensive field for gaining 
this information, for to enable them to locate the trouble of 
which the founder complains, the latter must give to them the 
name and per cent, of each brand of iron and scrap in his 
mixture. The information thus obtained makes it possible 
for the laboratory to give this mixture to another founder, 
and the remedy found to correct the mixture enables it to 
give a satisfactory mixture to another founder who is melt- 
ing the same brand of iron. As founders in any given dis- 
trict melt about the same brand of iron for the same class of 
castings, this information is of great value to the testing labora- 
tories, and in many cases enables them to give to the founders 
a more satisfactory mixture than the experienced foundry 
chemist at their own plants, and in almost every case, a more 
satisfactory one than an inexperienced chemist. But this sys- 
tem gives away the foundry mixture of iron, a secret many 
foundries endeavor to guard very closely. Testing laboratories 
contract to do this line of work for foundries by the year at a 
much less cost then they can employ a competent chemist and 
maintain a laboratory. These laboratories are also of value to 
the founder, when not regularly employed by him, in settling 
disputes with pig iron men as to analysis of iron, and in making 
tests for tensile and transverse strengths of iron called for in 
specifications for castings, testing coke, etc. 



1/4 FOUNDRY IKONS. 

The Foiuidry Chemist. — The inaccuracy of analysis and the 
chances of a sample taken from a few pigs in a carload of thirty 
to forty tons not fairly representing the per cent, of the various 
elements or metalloids analyzed for, which the iron of the entire 
carload may contain, and the uncertainty of resultant mixtures by 
analysis alone, have placed the chemistry of foundry irons in such 
bad repute among practical foundrymen, that it is only when a 
chemist has made himself master of the metallurgy of iron in 
addition to chemistry, that his services are considered to be of 
value by foundrymen. That the accuracy of resultant mix- 
tures made by analysis alone can not be depended upon, is 
admitted by practical foundry chemists, for in visiting foundries 
I have met many experienced chemists who frankly admitted 
that they depend more upon a practical knowledge of their 
irons, physical tests, fracture indications of iron in gates and 
castings, working of the iron etc., than upon analysis, and only 
resort to the latter to determine whether a new shipment of 
iron or fuel is up to the standard, or to locate some trouble 
with castings that can not be determined by other means. 
This is not stated with a view of condemning foundry chemistry, 
which has no doubt done a great deal to advance foundry prac- 
tice, but for the purpose of outlining the course the young 
chemist must pursue if he hopes to become a successful chemist 
of foundry irons. The laboratory training of a chemist fits him 
to become the most expert man on foundry irons about a 
foundry, for in this training he has learned the importance of 
accuracy and detail which fits him to do away with the rule of 
thumb practice so often complained of in foundry practice. In 
this training he learns the various metalloids and elements that 
enter into the composition of cast iron, and their effect in giv- 
ing to this iron its various characteristics. This knowledge fits 
him for becoming more expert in the manipulation of foundry 
irons than a man who knows nothing about the metalloids of 
cast iron, or their effect in various per cents, upon the charac- 
teristics of the iron. But he must realize that this knowledge is 
only the ground work upon which to build up a more practical 



ANALYSIS AND FOUNDRY CHEMISTS. 1 75 

knowledge of foundry iron than the man who does not possess 
it is able to attain. Foundry business was successfully con- 
ducted for hundreds of years before the modern chemistry of 
foundry irons was introduced, and besides analysis there are 
other things to be considered in the successful manipulation of 
them than the application of chemistry to them. Fracture in- 
dications are a very important matter in the manipulation of 
these irons. Without a knowledge of these indications the 
chemist would not be able to indicate the different grades of 
iron when piled in a foundry yard and, even if he knew the 
location of the piles from which his sample was taken, he would, 
if he undertook to make a mixture of iron upon the cupola 
scaffold, be entirely at the mercy of the cupola men and, if they 
chose to deceive him as to the pile from which the iron came, 
he would place an entirely different iron in his mixture. He 
might charge one grade or number of iron for another, and 
even go to the extreme of charging a white iron for a number 
one iron. To avoid this he should at the earliest possible 
moment make a practical study of fracture indications, for 
although he may have been taught in his laboratory work that 
they are of little or no value in indicating the quality of an iron, 
they have served the purpose of the founder in selecting his 
iron for various grades of castings ever since the beginning of 
iron founding, and must ever play an important part in deter- 
mining the quality of iron in pig, scrap and castings. The 
chemist by a careful study of fracture indications in connec- 
tion with his analysis should be able not only to detect by the 
eye the presence of a greater per cent, of any one metalloid in 
one iron than in another, but he should also be able to state 
about the per cent, of various metalloids the iron contains 
almost as accurately as he can by analysis, as well as indicate 
the quality the iron will make when remelted and run into cast- 
ings. When he has done this he can reduce his analyses 
actually necessar}' to such a small number, that he will have 
plenty of time for other work. Mechanical analysis is of great 
importance in determining the quality of iron after it is cast, 



176 FOUNDRY IRONS. 

and in indicating changes to be made in the mixture to obtain 
the desired quaHty of iron in castings. These are made by 
test bars, the shrinkage, soundness, transverse and tensile 
strengths of which in many cases indicate as accurately as analy- 
sis the per cent, of various metalloids the iron may contain, and 
also indicate whether an iron containing a greater or less per 
cent, of certain metalloids should be used in the mixture. Here 
again, the chemist has an opportunity of reducing the number 
of his analyses. It should be his aim to thoroughly understand 
this form of analysis, for by it alone can the quality of iron in 
castings beaccuratel)' determined, and changes made in the mix- 
ture to produce the quality required, and if he does not know what 
he has, his chemistry will not indicate the changes necessary to 
produce what he wants. Another important factor in the mani- 
pulation of foundry irons is the melting process. In this pro- 
cess the chemical composition of an iron may be entirely 
changed and the value of analysis destroyed. It should be the 
aim of the chemist to learn every detail of this process and he 
should be able to take charge of the cupola and give the cupola 
men instructions in every detail in making up the cupola for a 
heat, and the melting of iron. It will thus readily be seen that 
when a chemist has mastered only the analysis of foundry 
irons, he has only been fitted to begin to learn the manipulation 
of them. When the chemist has mastered these problems he 
is fitted to relieve the busy foimdryman and his foreman of the 
details in manipulation of their iron, and his services are of 
value to the founder, while as an analytical chemist only, they 
are of little or no value, and he frequently becomes a dis- 
turbing element in the foundry force by his attempt to shift the 
failure of analysis to produce the desired quality of iron upon 
some one else, as has frequently been the case. 

The following difference of opinion of chemists from " The 
Foundry," illustrates the failure of analysis to solve all the prob- 
lems met with in foundry iron. 

TJie Hoodoo in Pig Iron. — Replying to N. W. Shed's com- 
munication in the September Foundry, regarding the " Hoodoo 



ANALYSIS AND FOUNDRY CHEMISTS. 1 77 

in Pig Iron," Mr. H. Hood writes as follows: " I wish to take 
exception to his statement that he hopes this superstition will 
be permitted to die a natural death. 

"While unable to claim 25 years' experience, the writer, 
nevertheless, is in a position to state that there is a vital dif- 
ference in different pig irons of the same general composition. 
In my experience as a foundry chemist, the opportunity has 
been afforded to become more or less familiar with the opera- 
tion of a large number of foundries, and I am forced to admit 
that there is some quality in pig iron which the chemical labo- 
ratory is unable to determine. 

" Mr. Shed asks for a published list of the furnaces which 
make unsuitable pig iron, but this would obviously be a decided 
mistake. A black-list is always to be deplored and an iron 
found unsuitable for one class of work would not be found so 
for castings widely different in design and section.. 

" The writer was very recently called in to advise a foundry 
making a specialty of automobile cylinders. The storage yard 
contained a number of brands of pig iron of suitable chemical 
composition, and as the daily analysis of the cast was entirely 
satisfactory the writer was forced to fall back upon the ' super- 
stition ' that the pig iron was at fault. Another brand was 
used with a still greater loss, although the laboratory could de- 
tect no difference in the chemical composition. The next brand 
of iron tried was found eminently satisfactory, and we believed 
the problem was solved. A few days later a car of iron was 
used and the only remaining car of that brand was a trifle low 
in silicon, and it was decided to use 10 per cent, of a third 
brand to make up this difference. This third brand was un- 
doubtedly one of the "bad irons" for it caused a loss of up- 
wards of 50 per cent. The next day this 10 per cent, was left 
out, the deficiency in silicon being made up in another way, 
with the result that the cylinders were satisfactory. The results 
of the third day prove conclusively that the quality of the pig 
iron, and not any chemical difference was at fault. The mix- 
ture of the third day was identical with that of the day previous, 
1 2 



1/8 FOUNDRY IRONS. 

but the usual 20 per cent, of foundry returns used were from 
the heat containing this " off " iron with the result that there 
was another heavy loss. When it is considered that on the 
third day there could be present but 2 per cent, of this parti- 
cular pig iron, it must be admitted that this deleterious quality 
is an extremely potent one. Needless to say, the chemical con- 
tents were maintained practically uniform. 

" As a foundry chemist, and interested in chemistry, I do not 
like to assert that chemistry per sc is not all-sufficient, but the 
result of my experience compels me to do so, and although 
chemistry is doing wonderful things for the foundryman, it 
must be used intelligently and in conjunction with the mechani- 
cal processes and methods. 

" Instead of letting the superstition die, let us investigate 
it with an unbiased and open mind and get at the bottom of 
that unknown quantity which most certainly exists in pig iron." 



CHAPTER XIII. 

Testing Cast Iron. 

Definition of Test. — The term " test" as applied to cast iron 
means the subjecting of the iron to such conditions as will dis- 
close its true character and indicate its stability for the work to 
be cast from the quality or grade of it tested. This may be 
done by chemical analysis, the characteristics of the iron before 
it is cast being indicated by determining the per cent, of various 
metalloids it may contain, the effect of these metalloids upon it 
being such as to give to it certain characteristics that are known. 
Or, by physical tests, which means the subjecting of the iron after 
it has been cast to such tests as will disclose its physical char- 
acteristics and indicate whether it is suitable for the work to be 
cast. These characteristics are appearance of grain in fracture, 
shrinkage, depth of chill, hardness, softness, strength, change of 
shape while under stress, etc. 

Physical tests are made by means of test bars which, when 
subjected to various tests, indicate the characteristics of the iron 
as follows : Shrinkage test indicates the extent to which iron 
contracts in cooling from its length when hot. This test is 
made by casting a test bar of a given length and determining 
the extent it shrinks by comparison with the pattern from which 
it was moulded. To insure accuracy in this test some means 
must be provided to prevent the sand at the end of the bar 
being forced back by the molten iron and the test bar from 
being longer than the pattern. This is done by a cast iron 
yoke, against which the ends of the bar are cast, an exact 
length of the pattern being thus insured. This test is of value 
in determining the length and size the pattern should be made 
to insure a casting of a given length or size, and also in deter- 
mining whether castings that are to be assimilated, as in stove 

( 179) 



l8o FOUNDRY IRONS. 

plate, will be of a proper size if cast from different brands of 
iron. 

Fracture Test. — By fracture is meant the breaking of a piece 
of iron or test bar and judging the quality of the iron from the 
appearance of the fresh fracture, which is indicated by the size 
of the crystals, the luster, chilling tendency, etc. This test 
indicates the hardness or softness of the iron as the crystals are 
large or small. A large crystal with a dark luster is evidence 
of a soft iron, a small crystal and light luster of a harder iron, 
and a white crystal of a very hard iron. A white outer edge 
indicates the tendency of the iron to chill, and that it is too 
hard for very thin castings. Fracture also indicates to some 
extent the strength of iron, a sharp-pointed crystal being evi- 
dence of a stronger iron and a dull crystal of a weaker iron. 

Transverse Test is the breaking of a bar of iron under a 
known weight, and is made by supporting a test bar at each 
end and applying an increasing pressure or weight to the center 
of the bar until it breaks, and recording the number of pounds 
required to break it. Cross breaking is the most common 
break in cast iron, and this test, together with deflection or 
bending of the bar before breaking, is considered the most 
important test of cast iron. 

Change of Shape. — By change of shape under strain is meant 
the deflection or bending of a test bar before breaking. This 
is carefully measured, and indicates the extent to which the 
iron is likely to give or bend in a casting before breaking when 
subject to strain. 

Tensile Test. — By this test is meant the pulling or drawing 
apart of a piece of iron or test bar. This test is considered of 
little importance for cast iron, it being seldom subject to this 
strain in actual use. It is a very difficult test to make accu- 
rately owing to the difficulty in holding the test piece in the 
testing machine so as to place an even strain on all parts of it, 
and is seldom used for cast iron except in foundries where 
cylinders are cast for steam pumps, hydraulics, etc. 

Impact Test, means the breaking of a piece of iron by a blow. 



TESTING CAST IRON. l8l 

and recording the number and weight of blows required to 
break it, and also observing the condition of the test-piece after 
each blow, as to whether it is battered, chipped off, cracked or 
broken. Little attention is given to this test, which can only 
be accurately made in a machine constructed for the purpose 
and by an expert. Foundrymen usually make it with an ordi- 
nary hammer or sledge, and judge the quality of the iron by the 
weight of the hammer or sledge and the number of blows re- 
quired to break it and its condition after breaking. 

Crushing Test, means the placing of sufficient weight upon a 
short cylinder or square piece of iron to crush it. This test is 
of little value to the founder and the weight or stress required 
to make it is so great that it is not often applied. 

Direct PJiysical Test. — This means the breaking of a casting, 
an exact duplicate of a cast from the same iron whose strength 
and other qualities it is desired to learn. This test is only of 
value when a large number of castings are cast from the same 
pattern. 

Relative Test. — All tests are relative tests, for it is only by 
comparison with a standard test, which means the greatest 
amount of desired quality in an iron, that any conclusion can 
be drawn as to the quality of iron being tested. 

Standard Test. — The standard test may be that designated by 
scientists for the various tests and mean the best results they 
were able to obtain under the most favorable conditions in a 
testing laboratory, or it may be the best results the tester him- 
self has been able to obtain. The latter will generally be found 
to be the most satisfactory^ for there are elements such as hard- 
ness, softness, shrinkage, etc. which must be considered in the 
production of each line of castings, that were probably not kept 
in view by the scientist making the established test, his only 
aim being to obtain the best results from material tested. 

Statidard Foundry Test is a test that shows the best results 
that have been obtained in all the qualities desired in the line 
of castings to be made. It may include one or more methods 
of testing, each of which has a standard such as, standards of 



182 FOUNDRY IRONS. '' 

Strength, softness, shrinkage, hardness, chill, etc., which, when 
combined with each other, in a test-bar or piece, indicate the 
quality of iron desired in work to be cast. 

Chilled Test. — By chilled test is meant the tendency of mol- 
ten iron to chill when run against a cold iron and suddenly 
cooled. This test is made by moulding a piece the thickness 
and shape of the part of a casting to be chilled and forming 
the side or a part of the mould with a chill the thickness of the 
one to be used for chilling the casting, and filling the mould 
with the quality of iron to be used for the chilled casting. This 
test-piece when broken shows the depth of chill, the extent to 
which the chilled fibers extend into the soft iron, resistance to 
shock, etc. This test is of value in making chilled castings, 
such as car wheels, crusher-jaws, plows, plow-points, etc. 

Test Bars. — Owing to the variation in strength of test-bars, 
it is generally considered that one bar does not fairly repre- 
sent the actual strength of the iron, and it is the practice to cast 
three or more bars of each size, test them, and take the average 
breaking strength of the bars as indicating the actual strength 
of the iron cast. When it is only desired to learn the strength 
of iron cast in a certain part of a heat, these bars may all be 
cast from one ladle. But if it is desired to learn the strength 
of iron throughout the entire heat, they must be cast from dif- 
ferent parts of the heat, and may be cast singly or in pairs. As 
these bars are made for comparison with each other, it is very 
important that they should be of exactly the same size, for a 
large bar shows a greater strength than a small one, even when 
the difference in size is so small that it cannot be detected by 
the eye. It is therefore absolutely necessary that the greatest 
of care should be taken in making patterns and in moulding. 
Iron patterns are the best, for they are more stable than wooden 
ones, which are liable to shrink when not in use and, when 
placed in damp sand, or wet in sponging, expand to such an 
extent that the second bar, moulded from the pattern, may be 
larger than the first one. If the bar is to be broken in the 
centre it should be gated at the end, and every bar should be 



TESTING CAST IRON. 1 83 

gated in the same way and have the same size gate. It is 
good practice to use a set gate. Care should be taken to not 
wrap one bar in moulding more than another, and to have the 
temper of the moulding sand the same for each bar. Special 
care should be taken to ram each bar evenly throughout its 
length, and ram all bars to give the same degree of hardness to 
the mould. 

It is good practice to have all the bars moulded by the same 
moulder. The iron should be carefully skimmed before pour- 
ing, and all the bars should be cast with iron of as near the 
same temperature as possible. When bars are cast from differ- 
ent parts of a heat they should be moulded in separate flasks, 
for the pouring of one or more bars in the same flask, dries 
out the sand, and causes each succeeding bar to be heavier, 
strained, etc. 

Length of Test Bars. — Test bars may be cast of any length 
that suits the fancy of the tester, but for transverse tests, they 
are generally cast 12 or 24 inches long. Twelve inches is the 
most common length and testing machines are generally con- 
structed for this length, it being also best for comparison with 
standard tests, which are generally made with the twelve-inch 
bar. By the latter is always understood twelve inches between 
the bearings upon which the bar is placed for testing, and the 
bars are generally cast twelve and a half, or thirteen inches long, 
and are sometimes sixteen inches. This is done to test the 
iron farther from the gate, but there is no special advantage in 
this, and it is just as well to cast them only long enough to give 
a proper bearing upon the testing machine. 

Care in Casting Test Bars. — Cast iron is such a complex body 
that its strength and general characteristics may by the manner 
of manipulation be changed to such an extent as to have test- 
bars indicate a totally different grade of iron from the one actu- 
ally cast for testing. These changes are to a large extent under 
the control of the founder and moulder, and should be duly 
considered in making a few test-bars that are designed to indi- 
cate the strength and quality of iron in a heat of many tons of 



I 84 FOUNDRY IRONS. 

castings. By cooling iron rapidly, the size of the crystal and 
general appearance of the fresh fracture are entirely changed 
from those of a test-bar of the same size cooled slowly, and the 
strength of the bar is less. Hence the importance of casting 
bars for comparative tests in sand of the same temper so that 
one bar may not be cooled more rapidly than another by wet 
sand. Bars should never be shaken out when red-hot, and each 
bar should be permitted to remain in the sand about the same 
length of time as another. It is not good practice to let the 
bars remain in the sand over night to be annealed by the hot 
sand, unless the castings are permitted to remain in the mould 
over night. The temperature at which the iron is poured also 
greatly affects the strength of iron, and we may cast two bars 
from the same ladle of iron and have them show a wide dif- 
ference in strength by pouring one with very hot iron and the 
other with dull iron. Some irons give a stronger bar when 
poured hot and others when poured dull, so that no definite 
temperature for pouring to obtain the strongest bar, that will 
apply to all irons, can be stated. But as the strength of the 
bars are for comparison with each other and to indicate strength 
of iron in castings, they should all be poured as near the same 
temperature as possible and as near that of the iron for pouring 
the castings as possible. The part of the heat from which iron 
for test-bars is taken is another important matter. The first 
iron melted is always hardened to a greater or less extent b)- 
moisture in the sand bottom, by a damp spout, cold ladles, etc., 
and does not fairly represent the quality of the metal. From 
five to twenty hundredweight of iron, according to the size of 
cupola and heat, should be poured before test-bars are cast. 

Iron is hardened by boiling in a green ladle, and chilled to an 
extent that makes the grain closer, by a cold ladle. A hot ladle 
should therefore always be used for casting test-bars. 

Tensile and Other Test Pieces. — Tensile bars or pieces are 
made of a size and shape to fit the testing machine in which 
they are to be drawn. They, as well as all other test pieces, 
whether for strength, chill, or drilled tests, should be cast with 



TESTING CAST IRON. 1 85 

the same care, for they are designed to indicate the qiiaHty of 
iron in the castings and should be cast under as near the same 
conditions as possible. 

Strength of Cast Iron. — The strongest part of cast iron is 
generally considered to be in the outer surface of the iron or 
casting, and the cutting away of this reduces the strength of 
the iron. This is due to the outer surface being cooled more 
rapidly than the center and graphite, carbon, sulphur, etc., seg- 
regating to the center as the iron changes from a molten to a 
solid state. But this does not apply to all irons or castings, for 
very thin castings cooled quickly throughout show about the 
same structure or size of crystal at the center as at the outer 
edge, and the removal of the outer scale reduces the strength 
only to an extent corresponding to the reduction in size of the 
iron. Then again, irons that do not contain an excess of the 
segregating elements are not weakened to the same extent by 
the cutting away of the outer surface as those that do, and this 
weakness in not apparent in a close iron to the same extent as 
in a soft, open one. The cutting away of the mere casting or 
skin scale has very little effect upon the strength of the iron, 
for it does not lie in the scale but in the structure of the iron 
beneath it. This structure changes in heavy castings from the 
outer surface inwardly and, as it nears the center, the crystals 
become larger and the iron more open, and weaker. Hence 
the greater the amount of the outer surface cut away, the less 
the strength of the iron will be. Civil engineers and others 
who have learned that the greatest strength of cast iron lies in 
its outer surface have attempted to obtain an extra-strong iron 
in their castings by having test-bars made from the iron used 
for them. To do this they have required test-bars four inches 
square, or two by four inches, to be furnished with the cast- 
ings, and from the center of these bars have cut a one inch 
square bar for the test, and required this bar to show the 
strength called for in the specifications for the castings. This 
test is unfair to the founder, for it is made from the very 
weakest part of the iron, and were he required to give the 



I 86 FOUNDRY IRONS. 

specified strength for the casting in this part of the iron, he 
would have to far exceed the strength of cast iron. 

It was this kind of trickery, not only by private firms but by 
government officials also, that induced the Foundrymens' Asso- 
ciations to take up the matter of testing and endeavor to estab- 
lish a standard test for the various grades of castings. By doing 
so it was hoped to establish a standard that will be fair to both 
parties, and not admit of a founder being required to furnish 
castings of a strength above that of cast iron. To fairly repre- 
sent the strength of iron in a casting a test bar should be cast 
of the same thickness as the casting, and tested without remov- 
ing the outer surface of the bar. 

Adding StrengtJi to Cast Iron. — The strength of cast iron 
may be increased to almost any desired extent by adding steel 
to it when melting in a cupola. In doing this, care must be 
taken to select an iron that will absorb the steel without being 
hardened by it to so great an extent as to make it unfit for the 
work to be cast. This is controlled by the per cent, of silicon 
the iron contains. A high-silicon iron carries a larger per cent, 
of steel than a low one without hardening. The casting of a 
few test bars for a mixture of steel and iron in the yard will 
determine the per cent, of steel to be melted in the mixture. 
When making mixtures of this kind, for strength specifications, 
care must be taken to not exceed the strength of cast iron. A 
founder who resorted to this means of bringing his iron up 
to the strength called for in a government contract, succeeded 
in obtaining a transverse strength of 4500 lbs. in a Ixl bar, and 
had the casting condemned for the reason that it exceeded the 
strength of cast iron, and therefore was not cast iron, as called 
for in the specifications. 

Wrought iron also increases the strength of cast iron when 
melted with it. In making this mi.xture, the per cent, of wrought 
iron used, like the per cent, of steel, is controlled by the per 
cent, of silicon the iron contains. But as the object sought for 
is a strong iron, the silicon should be as low as possible to insure 
a soft casting, and in this case, the wrought iron should not 



TESTING CAST IRON. 1 87 

exceed thirty per cent. This mixture, as well as that with steel, 
should be melted very hot to insure an even mixture of iron, 
and sound castings. 

Cast iron may also to some extent be strengthened by adding 
wrought iron or steel drillings, and turnings to the iron in a 
ladle. But this is a very unsatisfactory process, for the heat 
absorbed from the iron in melting the turnings is so great that 
the iron becomes dull so rapidly that only a very limited 
amount can be added. If the turnings are not thoroughly ab- 
sorbed into the iron they cause blow-holes, and the least excess 
of borings makes it difficult to get a sound casting. A better 
way of adding wrought iron or steel to iron in a ladle is to heat 
a bar in a forge to a white heat, and place it in the iron, or 
stir it with it. It is then mixed with the iron as it melts off the 
bar, and the excess is removed when the bar is withdrawn. 
This insures a more even and sound casting as the bar can be 
removed when the iron is at a proper temperature for pouring. 

Annealing increases the strength of a close hard iron, but 
lessens that of a soft open iron. 

A low-silicon iron generally produces a stronger casting than 
a high-silicon iron. 

By varying the proportions of different irons in a mixture, a 
stronger iron can sometimes be produced from the same iron. 
The larger the per cent, of No. 2 iron in a pig mixture, the 
stronger the castings as a rule will be. 

A good grade of scrap added to an all-pig mixture invariably 
increases the strength of castings. About 50 per cent, should 
be added for this purpose. 

Testing Machines. — A home-made testing machine may be 
constructed in various ways at a very small cost. But such 
machines are only makeshifts at best, and require a great deal 
of time and labor in manipulating, and frequently do not accu- 
rately indicate the strength, hardness, softness or shrinkage of 
the iron; and it is better to buy a standard testing machine or 
send bars to a testing laboratory to be tested. 

One of the best machines manufactured for light castings is 



I 88 FOUNDRY IRONS. 

that of W. J. Keep, Detroit, Mich. This machine, or rather 
system of testing, indicates very accurately the strength, deflec- 
tion, shrinkage and chilHng tendency of a half inch square test 
bar. It is very highly spoken of by founders making stove 
plate and light castings. Mr. Keep also makes a drill-testing 
machine for testing hardness for heavier work that indicates 
very accurately the hardness of iron. 

For heavy work probably the best testing machines are those 
manufactured by Riehle Bros. Testing Machine Co., Philadel- 
phia, Pa. This firm makes a line of testing machines suitable 
for all the various tests required in specifications for castings, 
and for the one inch square transverse test. Their machine is 
probably the most convenient in use for a general test. 



CHAPTER XIV. 

Standard Tests. 

For many years foundry men have been annoyed by the 
trickery of inexperienced civil engineers and others in demand- 
ing that test bars be cast in a way that did not fairly represent 
the strength of the iron, and condemning castings from tests 
made from these bars. To overcome this difficulty the Ameri- 
can Foundrymen's Association, in 1898, appointed a committee 
to make a series of tests with a view of establishing a standard 
system of casting test bars and testing that would be fair to the 
foundrymen and purchaser of castings, and enable the founder 
to say to his prospective customer that he would furnish test 
bars subject to the standard test conditions only. Several series 
of test bars were cast and tested by this committee ; one of 
this series is given below, with report made by the committee. 

Second Series of A. F. A. Tests. — Report of committee on 
test bars cast under the auspices of the American Foundry- 
men's Association committee on a standard system of test bars 
for cast iron. Dr. Richard Moldenke, of Pittsburg, chairman. 
In the tables herewith are given the results of transverse, tensile 
and compression tests of bars made in Cast B, the iron being 
such as is used for dynamo frame castings. As indicated by 
the cuts accompanying the tables, the bars were both square 
and round, machined and unmachined. The committee re- 
.serves comment on the results for the foundrymen's convention 
of next month, in Pittsburg, but it has prepared the following 
memorandum : 

Cast B, Dynamo Frame Iron. — This set of 198 bars, cast 
vertically and at the same time, in accordance with the specifi- 
cations of the American Foundrymen's Association committee 

(189) 



(90 FOUNDRY IRONS. 

on standardizing the testing of cast iron, furnished 262 test 
pieces and 286 separate tests. This set was presented to the 
committee by the Westinghouse Electric & Mfg. Co., in the 
interest of the trade. The cast was made by Mr. Jos. S. 
McDonald. Cast B illustrates a class of castings which must 
machine readily, be soft in sections, little over one-half inch 
thick and yet sound when 14 inches is reached. About 45 per 
cent, scrap is carried in the mixture. A good transverse 
strength and resilience are essential, tensile strength being less 
so. The composition of this cast as taken from the i-inch dry 
sand and square bar is as follow : 

Total carbon 3.82 per cent. 

Graphite 3.23 per cent. 

Silicon 1 .95 per cent. 

Manganese 39 per cent. 

Phosphorus 405 per cent. 

Sulphur 042 per cent. 

The cross section of the square bars and the round is ap- 
proximately equal for the relative sizes. The machined bars 
were turned or planed to the size indicated, for the purposes of 
comparison. In the transverse tests the supports were all 12 
inches apart. The fresh fracture of each size of round and 
square, green sand and dry sand transverse bar was preserved, 
will be mounted in a case, and is expected to be on exhibition 
at the coming convention of the American Foundrymen's 
Association, in Pittsburg. From the physical structure of these 
bars it is seen that the larger sizes would be much better avail- 
able for standard tests than was the case with Series A, shrink- 
age spots not being very much in evidence. However, there is 
a slight tendency to pipe, a circumstance fatal to the value of a 
test bar cast in any other position than the vertical. But two 
bars proved unserviceable. The fluidity strips ran up nearh' 
full. 



STANDARD TESTS. 



191 



0\ 



TABLE I. 
Transverse Test. 

-DYNAMO frame IRON. BARS IN GREEN SAND AND NOT 
MACHINED. 



No. 


Approx. 
Cross Section. 




Inches. 


281 




282 
283 
284 


■5^ -5 


285 
286 


I X I 


287 
288 


1.5 X 1.5 


289 
290 


2 X 2 


291 
292 


2.5 X 2.5 


293 

294 


3^3 



295 

296 

297 
298 



3-5 ^ 3-5 
4 X 4 



Actual Size. 
Depth. Width. 
Inches. Inches. 


•53 
•52 
•54 
•54 


•57 
•53 
•56 
•55 


1.04 

I.OI 


1.04 
1.03 


1-52 
'•57 


1.52 
'•53 


2.03 
2.01 


2.04 
2.03 


2^57 
2.51 


2.59 
2.50 


3-03 
3^03 


3.02 
3.02 


3^52 
3^57 


3^54 
3^56 


4.00 
4.02 


4.06 
4-05 



Breaking 



Strain. 


Deflection. 


Lbs. 


Inches. 


380 


.190 


320 


.200 


460 


.210 


340 


.190 


2,140 
2,580 


.130 
.110 


8,060 


.102 


7,920 


.IC2 


16,180 


.101 


14,920 


.087 


30,500 
27,680 


.103 
.101 


45,790 
45,660 


.099 
.102 


68,470 


.091 


70,140 


.092 


over ico,oco 


* 


over 100,000 


t 



* .055 in. at 100,000 lbs. f '056 in. at 100,000 lbs. 

TABLE II. 
Transverse Test, 
series b. — dynamo frame iron. bars in green sand and machined. 



Approx. 
Original Cross 
^^' Section 

Inches. 



299 
300 


I XI 


301 
302 


1.5 X 1.5 


303 
304 


2 X 2 


305 

306 


2.5 X 2.5 


307 

308 


3^3 


309 
3.0 


3-5 " 3-5 


3" 
312 


4 X 4 



Actual Size 
as Machined. 


Breaking 
Strain. 


Deflection 


Inches. 


Lbs. 


Inches. 


•5" ^5 


250 

270 


.299 
.287 


I X I 


2,080 
2,400 


.170 

•159 


1.5 X 1.5 


6,640 
6,390 


.142 
.146 


2 X 2 


15,300 
16,400 


.119 
.116 


2.5 X 2.5 


27,770 
28,460 


.106 
.091 


3 x3 


44,070 
46,180 


•093 
.090 


35x3-5 


66,240 
63,100 


.052 
•059 



192 



FOUNDRY IRONS. 



r^ 



fr^ 



TABLE III. 

Transverse Test. 

series b. — dynamo frame iron. bars in dry sand and not 









MACHINED 






No 


Approx. 
Cross Section. 


Actual Size. 
Depth. Width. 


Breaking 
Strain. 


Deflection 




Inches. 
•5 " -5 


Inches. 


Inches. 


Lbs. 

320 
340 
280 
240 


Inches. 


313 
314 
3'5 
3'6 


•53 
•50 
•52 
•55 


' ^53 
•56 

1 -56 


.220 
.230 
.190 
.160 


317 

318 


I X I 


1.07 
1.05 


1. 01 

1. 06 


2,300 
2,660 


.110 
! .105 


319 
320 


I X 1.5 


1-55 
1.58 


1-54 
1-53 


7.470 
7,100 


.!00 

.091 


321 

322 


2 X 2 


2.09 
2.07 


2.03 
2.03 


i6,ioo 
16,230 


.087 
.091 


323 
324 


2.5 X 2.5 


2.56 
2.51 


2.51 

2.54 


27,840 
29,800 


.112 

.105 


325 
326 


3^3 


3-09 
3.00 


3.T0 

3.06 


49.360 
46,050 


.102 
.TOO 


327 
328 


3-5 ^ 3-5 


3^58 
3.62 


3-61 

3-53 


7-4,920 
72,450 


.090 
.091 


329 
330 


4 "4 


4^15 
4.16 


4.00 
1 4.02 


99,650 
99,820 


.069 
, .072 



SERIES B.- 



TABLE IV. 
Transverse Test. 

-DYNAMO frame IRON. BARS IN DRY SAND AND MACHINED. 



No. 


Approx. 

Original Cross 

Section. 


Actual Size 
as Machined. 


Breaking 
Strain. 


Deflection. 




Inches. 


Inches. 
•5x .5 


Lbs. 


Inches. 


331 
332 


I x I 


220 
200 


.300 

.294 


333 

334 


1.5 X 1.5 


I X I 


2,020 
2,000 


.182 
.180 


335 
336 


2 X 2 


1.5 X 1.5 


0,470 
6,000 


.123 
.130 


337 
338 


2.5 X 2.5 


2 X 2 


15,840 
•5.430 


.118 
.114 


339 
340 


3 x3 


2.5 X 2.5 


25,840 
27,780 


.103 
.100 


341 
342 


3-5 X 3^5 


3 ''3 


43,000 
41,370 


.086 
.082 


343 
344 


4 "4 


3^5 " 3-5 


60,620 
62,510 


.051 
.049 



STANDARD TESTS. 



193 



Q 



TABLE V. 

Transverse Test. 

series b. — dynamo frame iron. bars in green sand and not 

machined. 



No. 



345 
346* 

347 
348 

349 

350 

351 

352 

353 
354 

355 
356 

357 
358 

3^9 
360 

361 

■\t2 



Approx. 
Diameter. 

Inches. 



Actual Size. 
Depth. Width 

Diameter. 
Inches. Inches 



56 

113 
1.69 

2.15 
2.82 

338 
3.95 
4-51 



•59 

".58 
•56 

1. 17 
i-i5 
1.74 
1-73 

2.26 
2.26 

2.£6 
2.84 

3-53 
3-44 

4.01 
4.01 

4.61 
4.62 




* Defective — Shot. f .044 in. at ioo,oco lbs, 

TABLE VI. 
Transverse Test, 
is b. — dynamo frame iron. bars in green sand 



AND MACHINED. 



No. 


Approx. 
Original Diameter. 


Actual Diameter 
as machined. 


Breaking 

Strain. 


Deflection. 




Inches. 


Inches. 

1 
.56. 


Lbs. 


Inches. 


363 
364 


I-I3 


230 
230 


.310 

.302 


365 
366 


1.69 


I-I3 


2,040 
2,190 


.168 
•152 


367 
368 


2.15 


1.69 


6, rjo 
6,070 


•"3 
.118 


369 
370 


2.82 


2.15 


11,040 
1 1 ,090 


.079 
.082 


371 , 
372 


3.38 


2.82 


23.530 
24,830 


.092 
.098 


373 
374 


3-95 


3.38 


41,520 
41,050 


.072 
.074 


375 
376 


4.51 


3-95 


66,090 
64,210 


.069 
.061 



13 



194 



FOUNDRY IRONS. 



TABLE VII. 

Transverse Test, 
series b. — dynamo frame iron. bars in dry sand and not machined. 



No. 


Approx. 1 
Diameter. | 




Inches. 


377 

378 
379 
380 


.56 


381 
382 


1.13 ! 


383 
384 


1.61 


38s 
386 


. 2,15 


387 
388 


2.82 


389 
390 


3-38 


391 
392 


3-95 


393 
394 


4.51 



Actual Size. 
Depth. Width. 

Diameter. 
Inches. Inches. 



•5^ 
.58 

•53 
•51 


.60 
.60 
•58 


1. 18 


113 


1. 14 


1. 12 


1.77 
1.72 


1.74 
1.74 


2.34 
2.26 


2.29 
2.26 


2.87 
2.86 


2.89 
2.84 


342 
3.48 


3-44 
3-49 


3-97 
3-99 


4.02 
4.02 


4 60 
4.60 


4.62 
4.62 



Breaking 
Strain. 


Deflec- ( 
tion. 


Lbs. 


Inches. 


2CO 
190 

200 
180 


.204 i 
■203 
.190 
.220 


2,bIO 

2,240 


.110 
.120 


8,080 

7,480 


.085 
.082 


15,620 
15,260 


.087 
.078 


31,900 
30,770 


.107 
.III 


48,280 
47,810 


•093 
.089 


72,530 
74,400 


■095 
.094 


over 100,000 
over ioo,oco 


t 



tion. 



Inches. 



.12 
.12 



* .040 in. at ioo,coo lbs. 



t .044 in. at 100,000 lbs. 



TABLE VIII. 

Transverse Test, 
series b. — dynamo frame iron. bars in dry sand and machi 



No. 


Approx. 
Original Diam- 
eter. 


Actual Diam- 
eter as 
machined. 


Breaking 
Strain. 


Deflection. 




Inches. 


Inches. 


Lbs. 


Inches. 


395 
396 


1. 13 


•56 


210 

240 


•3" 

.320 


397 
398 


1.69 


1-13 


1,820 
1.750 


..78 
.162 


399 
400 


2.15 


1.69 


5,880 
6,030 


.114 
.112 


401 

402 


2.82 


2.15 


11,220 
10,840 


.088 
.091 


403 
404 


3.38 


2.82 


23.740 
24,420 


.089 
.088 


405 
406 


3.95 


3-38 


39,220 
39,570 


.075 
.078 


407 
408 


4-51 


3-95 


62,880 
63,120 


.052 
.058 



STANDARD TESTS. 



195 



r 



TABLE IX. 
Tensile Test, 
-dynamo frame iron. bars in green sand and not 
machined. 



No. 


Approximate 
Cross Section. 

Inches. 


Actual Area, 

in Square 

Inches. 


Breaking 
Strain. 

Lbs. 


Ultimate 

Strength 

per Sq. In. 

Lbs. 


409 
410 
411 
412 


•5x .5 


.28 

•29 
.26 
.28 


4,910 
4.920 
4,440 
4,490 


17,540 
1 7,600 
1 7,080 
16,180 


413 
414 


I X I 


I.OI 

1.04 


15,900 
15,150 


15,740 
14,570 


415 
416 


1.5x1.5 


2.26 
2.24 


28,450 
29,470 


12,590 
13,150 


417 
418 


2 X 2 


4.02 
4.01 


47,930 
45,120 


11,920 
11,000 


419 

420 
421 

422 


■S^ -5 

1 


•30 
•31 
•31 
.29 


5,050 
4,990 
5,030 
4,650 


16,830 
16,100 
16,220 
16,030 


423 

424 


I X I 


I.OI 

1.04 


15,700 
14,980 


15,540 
14,400 


425 
426 


1.5x1-5 


2.30 
2.31 


30,280 
31,090 


13,170 
13,460 


427 
428 


2 X 2 


3-97 • 
3-97 


41,030 
42,480 


10,330 
10,700 



TABLE X. 
Tensile Test, 

series B. — DYNAMO FRAME IRON. BARS IN GREEN SAND AND MACHINED. 



lA 



No. 


Approximate 
Original 

Cross Section. 
Inches. 


Area 
as Machined, 
Square Inches. 


Breaking 

Strain. 

Lbs. 


Ultimate 

Strength 

per Sq. In. 

Lbs. 


429 
430 

431 
432 

433 
434 


1 X I 

1.5x1.5 

2 X 2 


•25 

•25 

I.OO 

I.OO 

2.25 
2.25 


4,790 
4,020 

14,220 
15,790 

24,930 
32,580 


19,160 
16,080 

14,220 
15,790 

11,080 
14,480 


435 
436 

437 
438 

439 
440 


• 

1 X I 

1.5x1.5 

2 X 2 


•25 

•25 

I.OO 
I.OO 

2.25 
2.25 


4,030 
4,860 

15.360 
14,580 

25,970 
28,720 


16,120 
19,440 

15.360 
14,580 

11,540 
12,760 



196 



FOUNDRY IRONS. 



TABLE XI. 

Tensile Test. 

series b. — dynamo fkame ikon. bars in dry sand and not machined. 



No. 


Approximate 
Cross Section. 

Inches. 
•5'' -5 


Actual Area, 

in Square 

Inches. 

- 
.27 

•50 
.29 

.28 


Breaking 

Strain. 

Lbs. 


Ultimate 

Strength 

per Sq. In. 

Lbs, 


441 
442 
443 
444 


4,5x0 
4,840 
4,840 
4,440 


16,700 
16,130 
16,700 
15,710 


445 
446 

447 
448 


I X I 


1.03 
1.03 
1.02 
1. 01 


15,120 

15,480 

15-550 
15.570 


14,680 
15.030 
15,340 
15,410 


449 
450 


1.5x1.5 


2.25 
2.27 


29,150 
30,980 


12.950 

13,640 


451 
452 


2 X2 


3-92 
3.98 


41,940 
47,810 


11,210 
1 1 ,060 


453 
454 
455 
456 


■S^ -5 


.28 

•25 
•27 
.28 


4,4CO 

4,150 
4,280 
4,090 


15,800 
1 6,6co 
15,850 
14,610 


457 
458 
459 


I X I 


1.03 
1.09 
1.04 


15,320 
16,700 
15-790 


14,870 

I5,?20 

15,180 


4^0 
461 


1-5x1.5 


2.24 
2.23 


28,840 
26,650 


12,870 
10,610 


462 
463* 


2 X 2 


4.C0 


45,480 


",370 



* Dirty iron, 

TABLE XIL 

Tensile Test. 

series b. — dynamo frame iron. bars in dry sand and machined. 



No. 



464 
465 

466 
467 

468 
469 

470 
471 

472 
473 

474 
475 



Approximate 

Original 

Cross Section. 

Inches. 



1.5x1.5 



.5x1.5 



Area 
as Machined, 
Square Inches, 

•25 

•25 
1. 00 
1.00 

2.25 
2.25 



•25 

•25 
1. 00 
1. 00 

2.25 
2.25 



Breaking 
Strain. 

Lbs. 



4,460 
4,750 

14,690 
15,180 

' 26,OCO 

28,460 



3,990 

4,200 

15.330 

1 2,940 

25,920 

28, c 30 



Ultimate 

Strength 

per Sq. In. 

Lbs, 

17,840 
19,000 

14,690 
15,180 

11,560 
1 2,650 

15,060 
16,800 

15.330 
1 2,940 

1 1,520 
1 2,680 



STANDARD TESTS. 



197 



TABLE XIII. 
Tensile Test, 
-dynamo frame iron. bars in green sand and not 
machined. 



7 



No. 



476 

477 
478 
479 
480 



483 

-^484 
485 

I 4S6 
487 
488 

"7 489 

( 490 
\ 491 



Approximate 

Original 

Diameter. 

Inches. 



Actual Area 
in Sq. In. 



.56 

113 

1.69 
2.15 






492 
493 

494 
495 



.56 

I-I3 
1.69 

2-15 



•25 
•25 
.26 
.28 

.96 

I. CO 

2.26 
2.26 

403 
4-05 

.26 

.26 
.26 
.28 

1. 00 
•99 
2.26 
2.31 
4.C0 
4-'4 



Breaking 
Strain. 

Pounds. 

4,020 
4,410 
4,280 
4,600 

15,220 
15,870 

28,590 
29,700 

47,c<o 
46,120 

4.450 
4,176 
4.170 
4.380 

15.310 
14,180 

30,380 
32,260 

42,2CO 
50,180 



Ultimate 

Strength. 

Lbs. per 

Square Inch. 

16,080 
17,640 
1 6,000 
16,430 

15,860 
15,870 

13,090 
13.140 

11,670 
11,140 

17,110 
16,040 
1 6,040 
15.^50 

15.310 
14,320 

13.440 
'3.970 

10.550 
12,120 



7 



TABLE XIV. 
Tensile Test. 

B. — DYNAMO frame IRON. BARS IN GREEN SAND AND MACHINED. 



A 



No. 


Approximate 

Original 

Diameter. 

Inches. 

J -1 3 

1.69 

2.15 


Area as 
Machined. 

Square Inches. 


Breaking 
Strain. 

Pounds. 

4,810 
4,690 

14,760 
15,990 

27,900 
26,510 


Ultimate 

Strength. 

Lbs. per 

Square Inch. 


496 
497 
498 
499 
500 
501 


•25 

•25 

1.00 

1. 00 

2.25 
2.25 


19,240 
18,760 

14,760 
15,990 

12,400 
12,670 


502 
503 

504 
505 
506 
S07 


I-I3 
1.69 
2.15 


•25 
•25 

I. CO 

1. 00 

2.25 
2.25 


4,220 
4,800 

14,340 
13,400 

30,910 
. 30,950 


16,880 
19,200 

14.340 
13,400 

13.740 
13.760 



198 



FOUNDRY IRONS. 



TABLE XV. 

Tensile Test. 

series b. — dynamo frame iron. bars in dry sand and not machined. 




r 



* Lost. 



TABLE XVI. 

Tensile Test. 

series b. — dynamo frame iron. bars in dry sand and machined. 



No. 


Approximate 

Original 

Diameter. 

Inches. 

'•13 
1.69 

2.15 


Area as 
Machined. 

Square Inches. 


Breaking 

Strain. 

Pounds. 

4,390 
4,040 

15,780 
14,400 

29,280 
29,740 

4,670 
4,000 

•5,770 
•3,940 

28,570 
31,010 


Ultimate 

Strength. 

Pounds per 

Square Inch. 


531 
532 

533 
534 

535 
536 


•25 

•25 

I.OO 
I.OO 

2.25 

2.25 

•25 

•25 

I.OO 
I.OO 

2.25 

2.25 


17,560 
16,160 

15,780 
14,400 

13,010 
13,220 


537 
538 

539 
540 

541 
542 


»-i3 
1.69 
2.15 


18,680 
16,000 

15,770 
13,940 

12,700 
13.790 



STANDARD TESTS. 



199 



TABLE XVII. 



Compression Test, 32-inch Cubes. 



SERIES B. — DYNAMO FRAME IRON. 



No. 



543 

544 
545 

546 
547 
548 
549 
550 

551 
552 
553 

554 
555 
556 
557 

558 
559 
560 
561 

562 

563 
564 

565 
566 



Approximate Cross 
Section of Bar, 
Inches. 




Crushing 


Strength in. Pounds 




0^ 
^ a 


First }4 Inch 
from Edge. 


Second 
y Inch from 
' Edge. 


B 



Fourth 

3^ Inch from 

Edge. 


•5x .5 


38,360 

23,000 
20,980 
18,130 
















I X I 


27,440 
24,820 










20,980 






1.5x1.5 




1 










2 X 2 


21,640 










18,740 








15,060 




15,060 


1 


2.5 X 2.5 


18,270 




15,940 








13,790 










1 7,000 






, 


3 x3 


14,410 




' 








13,900 


13,160 1 




13,160 








15,970 






3-5 X 3-5 


15,200 












13,560 






12,430 








16,140 






1 


4 x4 


13,950 










13,760 


12,830 











Remarks. 



.u o I' — *^ 
^^ n ?^ 

2 OJ o u >- 
M w QJ x? „ 
-" D Q. M •■' 

w 
gj p I ■ ■ ^ aJ 

13 B 2:5-2 
2. .9 H ^ 3 



C — C g 1- 

B -c rt cj ^ ^ 
O c c ^ u ■" 



S.y-S CD ^ « 

.« <u o ;= J? S 



== XJ M 






u <« S .S ' 

1- r; S rt "S 



Note. — In these series of tests the bars for each test were cast in a different 
foundry under exactly the same conditions. The object in having them cast in this 
way was to ascertain the strength of different mixtures of iron and of mixtures re- 
quired for different lines of castings. All of the series of tests contemplated, we 
believe, were never made, and those made show such a wide variation in strength 
that no standard of strength has yet been established for cast iron or for any line of 
castings. In the above tests a good quality of soft foundry iron was used, and the 
strength indicates about the strength a founder may expect to find in bars of the 
same size. It will be observed that no two bars of the same size show the same 
transverse or tensile strength. This is always the case with test-bars, and it is the 
practice to cast two or more bars and take the average strength as indicating the 
strength of the iron. 



200 FOUNDRY IRONS. 

Method of Casting Test Bars. — A few extracts from the re- 
port made to The Pittsburg Foundrymen's Association by Thos. 
D. West on methods of casting test bars for The American 
Foundrymen's Association's Testing Committee maybe of value 
in showing the care taken in casting these bars and the number 
of bars required to establish standard tests. 

" There is no metal whose physical qualities are so easily and 
radically affected by thickness and rate of cooling as cast iron. 
A casting one-half inch thick and another four inches thick, in 
steel, for example, show very little difference in structure of grain, 
whereas such variation in thickness in cast iron may cause the 
lighter body to be very dense and hard, while the heavier body 
may be open-grained and soft. Then again, we can take the 
same thickness in two castings and by cooling one more quickly 
than the other, cause one to be white while the other will be 
gray in its body, all being poured from the same ladle of metal. 
The rate of cooling is a factor as important in its effect in alter- 
ing the structure or grain of cast iron as that of the differences 
in thickness of casting, and can be controlled in three ways. 
First: By having the mould of sand or of iron. Second: By 
varying the nature and dampness of the sand, or thickness of 
the iron chill forming the mould. Third: By variation in the 
temperature of fluidity of the melted metal at the moment it is 
poured. 

" Variation in the pouring temperature of metal, often greatly 
affects the strength of iron but in what direction, according to 
the grade used, is yet to be clearly established, as in some 
mixtures a dull iron increases the strength while in others the 
reverse is true, on account of the influence affecting the carbon 
in being combined or free in the iron. A study of the various 
conditions affecting the grain of cast iron will demonstrate that 
any attempt to obtain comparative test-specimens from which 
correct deductions can be expected to define the physical qualities 
of cast iron, should be made on a plan which permits pouring 
at the same temperature, and casting in a position permitting 
the most uniform cooling and giving the most uniform grain 



STANDARD TESTS. 20I 

in these specimens. These are conditions which the writer 
in previous papers has shown to be essential in making an)' set 
of test specimens to be used for comparative purposes. Very 
contradictory or at least unreliable results are all that can be 
compiled from most all existing records of tests intended to 
be comparative. This is largely due to the intricate and deli- 
cate nature of cast iron and the want of practical knowledge 
of founding on the part of most experimenters. It was in 
recognition of the great need of a more correct basis for com- 
parative physical tests that The American Foundrymen's Asso- 
ciation at the suggestion of Dr. Richard Moldenke, appointed 
a committee at the last annual meeting to take up the work of 
showing what cast iron is, and what may be expected of it, in 
the production of castings, and the use of different sizes of test- 
bars. To do this properly, it is necessary to obtain test-bars 
for more than one grade of iron. It is an error to think that 
one grade will establish comparative records that would show 
what cast iron is. Instead of there being but one grade of iron 
to be tested, we have fully eleven grades which must be gone 
through before complete records of any value can be had to 
represent the physical qualities of cast iron. When it is stated 
that there are about two hundred bars in each of the grades of 
iron ranging from one half inch to four inches square and round, 
15 inches long, half to be made in green sand and half in dry 
sand moulds, the weight being nearly two tons for a single set, 
or 22 tons in all, the magnitude of the work which the American 
Foundrymen's Association has in hand, as outlined by Dr. 
Moldenke, will be recognized. 

" In this work much time was expended in completing plans 
of procedure as the magnitude of the undertaking required that 
every step be well studied to make sure of giving the best that 
was possible to attain, the true strength, contraction and chilling 
qualities of cast iron, as it is used today. After all plans were 
arranged, the work of constructing patterns, core boxes and 
flasks was taken in hand and furnished by Dr. Moldenke and 
myself. Designing the method for casting these bars, and 



202 FOUNDRY IRONS. 

making the first set was assigned to the writer. Knowing the 
importance of casting on end, and pouring all bars in any set, 
(to be' used for comparative purposes) from the same ladle of 
iron and, if possible, at the same time and temperature, the 
writer organized the plan shown herewith, which has proved 
most successful and embodies principles that may be utilized 
to advantage in other lines of founding. The Westinghouse Co. 
is kindly allowing Mr. McDonald to make two sets of these 
bars and at this writing he is about ready to pour his second 
set. After this is finished, J. S. Seamon, of The Seamon Sleeth 
Co., Roll Manufacturers of Pittsburg, Pa., will receive the flasks 
and rigging, and thus they will be transferred from shop to 
shop, until the whole 1 1 sets or nearly 22 tons of test bars is 
completed. 

" All having taken part in this important work will be given 
full credit in the report which the committee will present giving 
the results of the tests of all the bars. It is but just to remark, 
that it requires experience in founding and men of ability to 
successfully oversee and mould up such a set of test bars after 
the plan herein described, but judging from the character of 
the men and firms who have consented to do this work, all may 
rest assured that the end sought will be as nearly attained as is 
possible with our present knowledge. 

" The flasks used for this work were all made of malleable 
iron so as to make them strong and light for handling. The 
cross bars were arranged in the flasks so as not to come over 
the part of the test bars which should fracture when tested. 

" In ramming the sand in the flasks, care was taken to ram 
it evenly and firmly, so that no swelling or scabbing could take 
place. Much care is also taken in venting as well as finishing 
the mould. The swab was only allowed to be used at the junc- 
tion of the gate and pattern. The reason for this is that if one 
part of the face of the mould is of damper sand than another, 
it will cause an uneven texture in the grain of the iron, and 
hence every precaution was taken not to use the swab anywhere 
near that portion of the bar which will break when tested. 



STANDARD TESTS. 203 

" Some will wonder why to get the dry sand effect in making 
the test bars, we did not mould them in iron flasks, and dry in 
an oven upon the plan generally followed for dry sand work. 
The reason this was done and the plan of making them of cores 
adopted, was that not all the shops that would be kind enough 
to assist in the work have drying facilities for flask work. In 
making a sand mixture for the cores it was very desirable to 
have it of a character to crush easily when the bars commence 
to contract. After some experimenting, the following mixture 
was adopted for making the cores. : I part lake, river or bank- 
sand, 3 parts of fine white silicon or crushed sand". 



CHAPTER XV. 

Semi-Steel. 

The metal produced by melting and casting a mixture of 
cast-iron and steel is commercially known as semi-steel, this 
term having been applied to it to distinguish it from cast-iron, 
malleable iron, and steel castings. It was not discovered by 
any one in particular, but was the result of replacing wrought 
iron scrap with steel scrap by many founders for the purpose 
of strengthening castings for special purposes requiring great 
strength. Very little was heard of this metal prior to 187 1-2. 
About this time, Pittsburg, Pa., founders commenced using it 
for rolling mill rolls, pinions, etc., castings which require great 
strength, and about the same time the Whitney Car Wheel Co., 
Philadelphia, Pa., began placing steel in their car-wheel mix- 
ture. After this date, car-wheel foundries began adding steel 
to their mixtures until the practice has become almost universal 
in these foundries. But it was not until a much later date than 
1872 that semi-steel was made to any great extent by machinery 
and jobbing foundries. In the early days of semi-steel, con- 
siderable trouble was experienced in getting a homogeneous 
metal which was due to the steel not mixing, or entering evenly 
into combination, with the iron. To overcome this difficulty, 
resort was had to placing the steel in pig moulds and casting 
the iron around it, to insure a more even mixture of the iron 
and steel when the pig was remelted. The iron and steel were 
also melted together and cast into pigs to be remelted for cast- 
ings, but these methods have been generally abandoned, and 
since the discovery that silicon is the controlling element in 
semi-steel making, a homogenous semi-steel containing almost 
any desired per cent, of steel is cast direct from the cupola, 

( 204) 



SEMI-STEEL. 205 

when the metals are properly mixed and melted. In making a 
semi-steel, the first thing to be done is to select a pig iron ha\'- 
ing the required per cent, of silicon to carry the desired per 
cent, of steel. This is determined by the thickness, size or 
shape of the work to be cast. Light semi- steel castings to 
insure softness, require about 2 per cent, silicon, heavier ones 
h to I per cent., and still heavier ones a smaller amount, all 
depending upon the line of work to be cast. The steel contains 
no silicon and the pig must be sufficiently high in silicon to 
impart the above per cent, of it to the mixture of semi-steel. 

By this method as high as 60 per cent, steel has been melted 
in mixtures for comparatively light castings to be machined, 
and a soft strong casting procured that finished like steel, and 
had a strength far superior to that found in any cast iron. The 
roll plate or high carbon steel is to be preferred, for it melts 
more readily than heavy steel rails and, when only one charge 
of semi-steel is melted on the bed, leaves the cupola free from 
steel. When steel rails are melted in a single charge on the 
bed, they sometimes hang up in the cupola, melt slow, and 
affect the iron throughout the entire heat. But steel rails or 
low carbon steel give equally as good results as high carbon 
steel, and may be melted, when steel is melted throughout a 
heat, without any more danger of hanging up than when melt- 
ing plate steel. Steel plate punchings are also melted for semi- 
steel, but these small particles are very liable to be oxidized by 
the blast in melting, and hard spots in castings have been 
attributed to them. 

The effect of steel in cast-iron is to add tensile and transverse 
strength to it, close up the grain, and make a more dense metal 
resembling steel, and the larger the per cent, of the latter the 
more closely it resembles that metal both in strength and finish. 
The per cent, of steel that gives a maximum strength to semi- 
steel is a very much disputed question, some founders claiming 
that 5 to 10 per cent, gives equally as great an increase in 
strength as 50 to 60 per cent. This probably depends to a 
large extent upon the characteristics of the iron with which the 



206 FOUNDRY IRONS. 

Steel is mixed, but it is fair to presume that the nearer a semi- 
steel comes to steel by the addition of that metal, the closer it 
will approximate the strength of steel. 

As low as 3 per cent, of steel in a mixture of iron is claimed 
to have increased the transverse strength of a one inch square 
test bar 200 pounds, and 5 per cent, to have increased it 500 
pounds. 

In the making of semi-steel in a cupola the carbon in the 
metal is increased in melting, and with 25 per cent, steel con- 
taining only a small fraction of one per cent, carbon and the 
pig containing 3 per cent, carbon, analysis of the semi-steel has 
repeatedly shown three per cent, carbon in the metal, whereas 
it would have shown 2.5 per cent, less than in the pig if carbon 
had not been taken up. 

Semi-steel mixtures are now made in almost all of the job- 
bing and machinery and specialty foundries for castings requir- 
ing a strong iron, but many of these mixtures can hardly be 
called a semi-steel, for they contain only from 3 to 5 per cent, 
steel to give strength to the iron, while a real semi-steel con- 
tains at least 50 per cent, steel, but the mixtures to which this 
name is generally applied, contain from 20 to 25 per cent, of 
steel. This amount has been found to give the desired strength 
for most castings, and the per cent, of silicon it contains the 
required hardness. For gear wheels such a mixture is said to 
give a casting equal to steel gear. 

The following very complete paper on semi-steel was pre- 
pared by H. E. Diller, and read at the Boston meeting of The 
American Foundrymen's Association : 

" The Effect of Melting Steel With Iron in the Cupola. — It is 
well known that melting steel with iron in a cupola adds strength 
to the resultant casting. But to what degree this is so, and the 
best proportion of steel to use are not so clearly understood. 
With a view of learning something more definite in regard to 
these two subjects, and also to see if it were possible to trace 
some connection between the percentage of total carbon in the 
iron, and the tensile strength, I have made the tests given in 
the accompanying table. 



SEMI-STEEL. 



207 



" The tensile and transverse strength given, are the average of 
two, and in some cases three, test bars. For the tensile strength 
a I ^-inch round bar was used. The tiansverse strength was 
obtained from a i-inch square bar placed on supports 12 inches 
apart. 

"The object sought in the following classification is to have 
the silicon about equal in the tests of each set, the amount of 
the other elements being as nearly alike as it was possible for 
me to set them. 





c 






i 


^ 


6 


U 


^ •£ 




clj 


d 




''Si 


3 i 

Si 


(/J 

1 


s 


J3 

B 


u 


1-4 











0) 

0-, 


I 


1-43 


.047 


•564 


.82 


.67 


3-H 


3-81 


23060 


2550 





2 


1.50 


.065 


•532 


•33 


.64 


3-44 


3.08 


30500 


2840 


25 


3.... 


1.76 


.062 


.488 


•53 


•51 


3.12 


3^63 


22180 


2440 





4.... 


1.76 


•139 


•515 


•57 


.43 


2.94 


3.37 


27090 


2770 


I2>^ 


5.... 


1.77 


.069 


■339 


•49 


•56 


2.87 


343 


32=; 00 


3120 


I2>^ 


6.... 


1.83 


.100 


.6ro 


•55 


•51 


2.44 


2.95 


36860 


3280 


25 


7.... 


1-75 


.089 


•598 


•35 


•74 


2.12 


2.86 


30160 


3130 


37>^ 


8.... 


1.96 


.104 i 


.446 


•44 


•63 


3^i8 


3^8i 


21950 


2230 





9.... 


2.12 


•037 : 


.410 


.26 


•38 


3.26 


3.64 


21890 


2470 


1 21. 


10 


2.16 


.060 


•315 


.20 


1.06 


2.30 


3^36 


26310 


2670 


123^- 


II 


I-S7 


•C93 


.470 


.48 


•57 


2.83 


3-40 


32530 


3050 


37>^ 


12 


2-35 


.061 


■5'5 


•56 


•54 


3-40 


3.94 


21990 


2200 





13.... 


2.53 


.104 


.490 


•54 


.60 


2.56 


3.16 


33390 


2850 


25 


14.... 


2.36 


.064 


•327 


.24 


1.08 


2^15 


3-23 


31560 


3200 


25 



" Tests Nos. I and 2 show comparatively little difference in the 
chemical contents, except in the manganese and graphite. As 
the manganese in No. r should be beneficial to the strength of 
the bar, the only way to account for the greater strength of the 
iron from No. 2 is the lower percentage of graphite, or the 
molecular structure resulting from the 25 per cent, of steel in 
the mixture. 

" Comparing Nos. 3 to 7 we find that the strength increases 
with the percentage of steel used, and the decrease of total car- 
bon with the exception of No. 7. In this 37^ per cent, of steel 
was used, and the total carbon was less than in any other test. 



208 FOUNDRY IRONS. 

but it is weaker than either No. 5 or No. 6. This being a soh- 
tary case, it can hardly be used as proof that 37^ per cent, of 
steel is more than it is well to melt in a cupola. But test No. 
I I, which also contained 37! per cent, of steel and more car- 
bon, was only a little stronger. 

" Test No. 4 was considerably weaker than No. 5 , but its higher 
percentage of sulphur with its lower combined carbon would 
seem to indicate that these bars were either cooled slower, or 
poured from duller iron than were the bars from No. 5, which 
may account for their being weaker than the No. 5 bars. 

" In looking at Nos. 8 to 1 1 we see that No. 9, although con- 
taining I2i per cent, of steel, is no stronger than No. 8, in which 
there was no steel. And No. 10 with 1.06 combined carbon, 
and I2i per cent, of steel, gives less strength than might be 
expected. As these tests are so much lower in manganese than 
Nos. 8 and i i , it may be that their weakness is due either to 
the lower manganese or to the conditions of melting, which re- 
duced the percentage of manganese so much more than in Nos. 
8 and 11. The four charges each contained about .50 manga- 
nese before melting. 

"Nos. 13 and 14, each from charges containing 25 per cent, 
of steel, show a marked increase in strength over No. 12. 

"We find that all the tests from charges containing 25 per 
cent, of steel are stronger than those from the charges contain- 
ing but I2i per cent., with the exception of No. 5, which is 
stronger than two of the tests which had 25 per cent, of steel 
in the mixture. 

"The tests were made with pig iron, ferro-silicon and steel 
scrap, no cast iron scrap being used. This was done in order 
to better control the percentage of the elements in the iron. 

" In some cases when a large percentage of steel was added, it 
was necessary to use ferro-silicon to get the desired amount of 
silicon in the charge. To see how this and the steel mixed 
with the pig iron two tests were taken from No. 13, which con- 
tained 1,000 pounds of steel, 400 pounds of ferro-silicon (8.5 
per cent, silicon) and 2,600 pounds of pig iron. The charge 



SEMI-STEEL. 209 

was tapped from the cupola into a ladle, and the tests taken at 
different times, as the iron was being poured from the ladle. 
The one sample contained 2.53 and the other 2.54 per cent, of 
silicon. 

" Two tests taken in the same way from No. 14 contained 1.97 
and 1.94 per cent, of silicon. This charge was made up of 
1,500 pounds of steel, 450 pounds ferro-silicon, and 2,050 
pounds of pig iron. 

" Similar tests from charge No. 2, which v/as made up of i ,000 
pounds steel and 3,000 pounds pig iron, contained 1.50 and 
1.52 per cent, of silicon. 

" These three cases offer pretty strong proof that the pig 
iron, steel, and ferro-silicon mixed thoroughly. 

" Although of a limited number, the tests given seem to indi- 
cate that 25 per cent, of steel will add about 50 per cent, to the 
strength of the iron; and 122 per cent, of steel approximately 
25 per cent. The tests containing 37^ per cent, of steel were 
hardly as much improved in strength as those with 25 per cent, 
of steel, from which we may infer that the limit of the amount 
of steel it is beneficial to melt with iron in a cupola, is between 
25 and 372 per cent." 

Melting Semi-Steel. — A higher heat is required to melt steel 
than cast iron, and when the two materials are melted together 
in a cupola more fuel is required for the metal to be at a suffi- 
ciently high temperature when drawn from the cupola to insure 
a thorough mixing and uniting of the iron and steel. When 
only 2 to 5 per cent, steel is melted throughout a heat for the 
purpose of increasing the strength of the castings, very little if 
any extra fuel is required, but when a greater amount than this is 
used, or a special charge of from 10 to 60 per cent, steel is 
melted on the bed, it is the practice to increase the height of the 
latter from two to three inches above that required for a hot 
iron, and when a larger per cent, of steel is used throughout the 
heat the charges of coke are also increased a like amount. 
The exact amount of increase must be determined by experi- 
ence in melting a semi-steel, but it must be sufficient to give a 
14 



2 10 PX3UN1)RY IRONS. 

very hot metal at the cupola spout, as when this is not done, a 
spotted metal will be the result. The steel should be charged 
on the fuel and the iron on top of the steel. When melting a 
large per cent, of plate steel, care must be taken to charge the 
steel in such a manner as to permit the blast and heat to pass 
between the plates to melt them. If this is not done, the steel 
may be converted into a solid mass in the cupola that cannot 
be melted at all, as has been the case in a number of instances. 
To avoid this the plates must be bent in such a manner as not 
to admit of them becoming packed and welded to each other, 
and to make openings through which the blast and heat can 
pass around them. When melting steel rails or railroad track 
steel, it is good practice to cut the rails into short pieces and 
charge them around the cupola with the ends towards the center, 
and fill in coke between them before charging the pig iron, a 
hot metal and even casting being thus insured. By charging the 
steel on the coke it receives the first greatest and most prolonged 
heat, and is ready to melt as soon as the pig and the two metals 
come down together, the result being a more even mixture of the 
two metals. For large castings, it is the practice to draw all the 
semi-steel into a large ladle and thoroughly stir it with a bar be- 
fore casting, but this is seldom done for small castings, the 
metal being taken direct from the cupola in small ladles and 
poured. Always melt a semi-steel mixture hot and fast. When 
hard spots are found in the castings, the first thing to be done is to 
look to the charging and mixing of the metals. 

Very light clean turnings of steel can be melted in a ladle of 
very hot iron, and from 2 to 3 per cent, of steel added to the 
iron in this way. The turnings must be put into the iron in a way 
that will not admit of them balling up or adhering to the bottom 
of the ladle. 

A higher and more prolonged heat is required to melt steel 
than cast iron, and the destruction of lining material is greater 
in melting semi-steel than in melting iron, but with up to 25 per 
cent, steel this destruction has not been found to be any great 
objection, and a lining, when properly kept up, lasts almost as 
long as in melting iron. 



SEMI-STEEL. 211 

Semi-Steel Mixtures. — With the ordinary jobbing and ma- 
chinery foundry pig, containing from 2 to 3 per cent, silicon, 
from 15 to 25 per cent, steel may be used. For gear wheels, 
pinions, etc., this mixture gives a strong, close metal that wears 
well and is not too hard for finishing. For the lighter castings 
15 per cent, is used, 20 per cent, for the heavier ones, and for 
thick, heavy castings, 25 per cent. Should either of these mix- 
tures prove too hard, or the metal uneven, a less per cent, of 
steel should be used or a pig higher in silicon. To make a 50 
per cent, steel mixture a pig higher in silicon than No. i or 2 
foundry pig is required, as the castings should contain from i 
to 2 per cent, silicon according to thickness and, the pig must 
furnish all of it. 

The following semi-steel mixtures for steam cylinders were 
recently published in Castings, by James A. Murphey, foundry 
foreman of the Hoover, Owens, Rentschler Co., Hamilton, 
Ohio, and include a very satisfactory mixture for large Corliss 
cylinders. The lowest amount of steel to do much good is 10 
per cent., the maximum about 30 per cent., for all such work. 
Below are given a few analyses and tests of Corliss cylinders, 
made by the Hoover, Owens, Rentschler Co., whose cylinders 
are all semi-steel and who have a very desirable record on this 
class of work. The making and testing of these cylinders was 
in each case subject to the supervision of the purchaser's in- 
spectors : 

^o-incJi jacketed pumpijig evcgiiie eylinders. No. i. Silicon, 
1.66; sulphur, .065; phosphorus, .70. and manganese, .90; 
transverse test, 4,100 lbs. ; tensile test, 36,000 lbs. 

No. 2. Silicon, 1.60; sulphur, .063; phosphorus, .72; man- 
ganese, .85 ; transverse test, 4,400 lbs. ; tensile test, 37,300 lbs. ; 
mixture, 80 per cent, pig and 20 per cent, steel. 

fio-inch jacketed cylinders. Silicon, 1.70; sulphur, .07 ; phos- 
phorus, .70; manganese,. 75 ; transverse test, 3,560 lbs.; tensile 
test, 30,400 lbs. ; mixture, 80 per cent, pig and 20 per cent, 
steel. 

jo-inch plain Corliss. Silicon, 1.70; sulphur, .075; phos- 



2 12 FOUNDRY IRONS. 

phorus, .60; manganese, .92; transverse test, 3,350 lbs. ; ten- 
sile test, 3 1 ,300 lbs. ; mixture, 80 per cent, pig and 10 per cent, 
steel. 

The latter mixture is good for any ordinary cylinder, as far 
as the analysis is concerned, but the carbon must be watched 
to get the desired grain. The percentage of steel can be raised 
for heavier work, or, what is often better, a somewhat harder 
pig iron may be used. The graphite carbon should be kept 
from 2.50 to 2.80 per cent, and the total carbon about 3.50 per 
cent. 

Calculating Mixtures. — A simple way of calculating the semi- 
steel mixtures is as follows : 

Per Cent, of Silicon Per Cent, of 

in Pig Iron and Silicon in iMix- 

Scrap. ture. 

40 per cent, high-silicon pig iron 3.10X0.40 1.24 

20 per cent. high phosphorus pig iron.. . 2.30X0.20 0.46 

15 per cent, cast iron scrap 2.00X0.15 0.30 

25 percent, steel scrap o.04Xo.25 o.oi 

Total silicon in mixture 2.01 

Per Cent, of Phos- Per Cent, of 

phorus in Pig Iron Phosphorus in 

and Scrap. Mixture. 

40 per cent, high silicon pig iron 0.65x0.40 0.26 

20 per cent, high i^hosphorus pig iron.. 1.50x0.20 0.30 

15 per cent, cast iron scrap 0.60x0.15 0.09 

25 per cent, steel scrap 0.08x0.25 0.02 

Total phosphorus in mixture 0.67 

When making semi-steel to be finished without annealing, 
care should be taken not to use too high a per cent, of steel in 
the mixture; 25 per cent, is about the limit that can be used 
with the general run of foundry pig, and to have a casting suf- 
ficiently soft for planing and boring. Good mixtures are made 
with from 10 to 15 per cent, steel and with more certainty of a 
homogeneous casting than with a higher per cent. When making 
cupola semi-steel, it is better practice to use a pig that contains 
about the desired percent, of silicon, phosphorus and manganese 



SEMI-STEEL. 213 

the semi-steel is to show than to depend upon adding these ele- 
ments to it in the cupola, or after the metal is melted. Melt a 
semi-steel mixture hot, and pour it hot to insure a sound 
casting. 

Test-bars 2X2x24 inches show a greater proportional trans- 
verse strength and deflection than bars i X i X24. This is due 
to the chilling tendency of the metal whereby the strength of 
the lighter bar is reduced. 

Shrinkage in Senii-Stcel.- — The shrinkage in steel castings 
when being cast is so great that very large gates and runners 
have to be used'for light castings, and large sinking heads have 
to be placed upon heavy castings to prevent shrink holes, and 
to obtain perfect castings. So great an amount of metal has to 
be used for this purpose, that the remelt of gates, sink heads, 
etc., amounts to from 12 to 40 per cent, of the heat melted. 
Steel when melted with iron increases shrinkage in proportion 
to the per cent, of it melted with the iron. When a large per 
cent, of steel is used in a mixture of semi-steel, provision must 
be made for this shrinkage by larger gates and runners for the 
castings than for iron, as well as for sink heads through which 
heavy castings may be fed up and churned. On account of this 
shrinkage a semi-steel is better suited for small, chunky and 
heavy castings than for large light ones, such as large frames, 
which frequently shrink and warp to so great an extent that they 
can only be used after annealing. The shrinkage in such cast- 
ings has also been found to be uneven, and in this case they are 
no better or stronger than cast iron ones, even if they do not 
warp. 

Semi-Steel Malleables. — A new industry in the foundry line 
known as steel malleables has in the past few years sprung up. 
These malleables are cast from a semi-steel containing from 40 to 
80 per cent, steel in combination with a malleable iron pig mixture 
containing only sufficient silicon and carbon to give the neces- 
sary fluidity to the metal for casting. The metal when cast is 
white, hard and brittle, and after casting is put through the 
malleable annealing process to render it soft, malleable, and 



214 FOUNDRY IRONS. 

strong. It is claimed that these malleables are much stronger 
than iron malleables and that, when the higher percentage of 
steel is used in the mixture, they may be forged and tempered, 
excellent cold chisels and other tools having in this way been 
made. The semi-steel malleable mixture is drawn from the 
cupola into very small hand ladles and cast into the lightest of 
bench work malleables with no trouble in running them. This 
shows that when semi-steel is properly melted there is no diffi- 
culty in casting the lightest of castings. 

Iro)i and Steel Founding. — Many iron founders who have an 
occasional call or order for steel castings have an idea that they 
can put in a baby Bessemer converter or open-hearth furnace 
and make these castings as readily as iron ones, or as a steel 
foundry. This is a mistake, for there is very little in common 
between the iron and steel foundry except the patterns. In 
steel founding heavy iron flasks are generally used and a totally 
different grade of moulding sand as well as a different kind of 
blacking is required, and an entirely different system of mould- 
ing and gating. The metal has not only to be melted, but to 
be made. Its temperature and shrinkage are different from 
those for iron, and a different system of handling it is required. 
By the time the iron founder has learned all these things, he 
will conclude there is about as much difference between iron 
and steel founding as between iron and brass founding. The 
most difficult problem, however, the founder will encounter 
is the manipulation of the converter or furnace. The average 
iron founder and foreman know nothing whatever about the 
manipulation of these furnaces or the making of steel from 
pig iron and scrap iron or scrap steel. Before they learn 
the mysteries of these processes many heats and castings will 
be lost, and probably the steel founding project abandoned 
with the cost of converter or furnace charged to profit and 
loss. 

It must be remembered that the making of steel is a separate 
and distinct business and science, and with the Bessmer conver- 
ter, largely a science of the eye, for the quality of steel must 



SEMI-STEEL. 21$ 

be judged or decided by the various colors of the flame thrown 
out from the mouth of the converter. The eye must be trained 
to this work, either with or without the spectroscope, and it 
must be kept in training for this work, for even an expert could 
not accurately judge the quality of a steel if only called upon 
to do so once a week or month. In the open-hearth process 
the flame also has its indications which are judged by the eye, 
and there are many other points that an operator must be in 
constant training for to be an expert and produce a steel of a 
desired quality with any degree of certainty. It will thus read- 
ily be seen, that the iron founder can not afford to undertake 
to make a few steel castings now and then for his iron casting 
customers. But the iron founder may engage in steel found- 
ing if he has enough orders for steel castings to justify him in 
putting in a baby Bessemer converter or open-hearth furnace, 
and employ a steel expert to make a steel suitable for the work 
to be cast. 

Strengthening Cast Iron with Steel. — Cast iron is strength- 
ened by the addition of steel for the following reasons : First, it 
breaks up the graphite carbon into a fine grain or flake, which 
makes the casting closer-grained and stronger with very little in- 
crease in hardness. Second, because it counteracts the influence 
of high phosphorus and silicon, which have a tendency to make 
the iron weak or erratic. The amount of steel scrap used does 
not to any extent affect the per cent, of carbon present in the 
iron, as the steel in every case takes up from the fuel the amount 
of carbon that has been reduced in the total mixture by the use 
of steel scrap. For example, if an iron containing 3.50 per 
cent, of total carbon is melted with an equal amount of steel 
containing 0.50 per cent, carbon, theoretically the resultant mix- 
ture would contain about 2. 00 per cent, carbon. But this is not 
the case, for the melted metal takes up carbon from the fuel 
until it contains almost as great an amount as the original pig 
iron. The introduction of steel into cast iron in a cupola con- 
verts it back into iron, but with this difference, that the graphite 
carbon is broken up into finer flakes, or the carbon taken up by 



2l6 FOUNDRY IRONS. 

the steel from the fuel exists in a different chemical combination 
than that in the iron. The diffusion of this carbonized steel 
through the iron imparts to it the strength of a semi-steel which 
is greater than that of cast iron. This illustrates the control of 
carbon in cast iron when this control is not destroyed by other 
elements, and the elimination of these elements would no doubt 
give a stronger cast iron without the steel scrap. 

The following opinions and descriptions of semi-steel by other 
writers illustrate many of the characteristics of this metal and 
may give desired information to our readers in regard to it. 

USE OF STEEL SCRAP IN THE CUPOLA.* THE PRODUCTION OF 

SEMI-STEEL CASTINGS — PROPORTIONS OF STEEL USED 

IN THE MIXTURES — INTERESTING TESTS. 

BY C. R. MCGAHEV. 

The foundryman of to-day is confronted with the problem of 
what kind of cast iron he shall try to make; whether to go into 
irons that show greater elasticity and strength, or to adhere to 
softness regardless of what the work is intended for. 

In working out this problem, I took for my standard of com- 
parison a test bar longer than the ordinary, as this did not run 
the breaking strengths too high, and also gave deflections more 
readily observable than with the ordinary i i-inch round bar 
broken on supports 12 inches apart. 

My tests ran from 750 pounds up to 2,400, with a i X I X 
24-inch bar, separately cast — not as a coupon. The deflections 
approximated from o.io up to 0.55-inch. This range obtained 
with all kinds of iron in the ordinary run of shop work is not at 
all satisfactory, and it would seem that some point ought to be 
selected to which foundrymen should work in order to get the 
most satisfactory product in regular jobbing castings, not special 
work. 

Elastic Limit. — To best resist repeated strains, shocks, and 

♦Presented at the Cincinnati convention of the American Foundrymen's Associa- 
tion. 



SEMI-STEEL. 217 

heavy work, it is necessary to run the elastic limit up as high 
as possible and yet hold a good deflection. Since the breaking 
strength and elastic limit in cast iron are not far apart, we would 
naturally try to get our transverse test quite high, and for the 
bar in question aim at 2,000 pounds, and perhaps even higher, 
the deflection running up to 0.50-inch. 

It is further necessary to reduce the shrinkage to a minimum, 
so that the interior strains may be obviated as much as possible. 
This is particularly the case where pulleys, fly wheels, and the 
like are made. A careful study of the chemistry of iron will 
aid in this, and the addition of steel to the mixture, thus reduc- 
ing the total carbon, gives us the best solution. In this way it 
is possible to run up the strength of the bar 70 per cent, and 
also greatly increase the deflection. 

Semi-Steel and Ferro-Cai'bon. — The terms semi-steel and 
ferro-carbon, while used with good intentions, are entirely mis- 
leading, as we do not convert the iron charged to steel or any- 
thing like steel, but simply dissolve the steel scrap added in the 
iron mixture, making it of higher strength. It is cast iron just 
the same. 

In using steel scrap, much depends upon the coke. I have 
found that with mixtures of the same composition, with one 
coke I would get a high strength, and with another quite the 
reverse. The melting conditions were exactly the same, and 
the peculiar results are doubtless due to the composition, struc- 
ture and behavior of the coke in the cupola, causing the iron to 
melt more or less rapidly, and remain in contact with the fuel 
to a greater or less extent. Thus a coke with a low ash, or in 
other words high fixed carbon, gave a very hot iron, but with a 
much lower transverse strength than another coke higher in ash, 
but with the same sulphur. The addition of steel scrap to the 
better coke gave the strength more nearly equal to the other 
metal, showing evidently a greater absorption of carbon from 
the fuel with the better coke and hotter metal. 

It is therefore necessary to understand the fuel and melting 
conditions well in order to obtain desired results. It is further 



2I» FOUNDRY IRONS. 

necessary to run quite hot, and when much sulphur is present, 
to carry high manganese, as this tends to flux off the sulphur, 
as a manganese-sulphide. A very interesting observation was 
made when an accident stopped operations for a short time. 
The test bars made from the metal right after starting up again 
ran very much better than the average of the run. It seems as 
if the stoppage gave the steel time to reach a high temperature, 
and hence it melted more readily, thus producing lower carbon 
cast iron, with consequent higher strength. 

Mixing the Materials in the Cupola. — To get the materials 
of the charge to mix well is very desirable. I have had the 
best results when allowing the bed to burn for two hours, hav- 
ing it heavy enough to allow this, then to use very mild blast 
(from five to six ounces only). This always gave me higher 
strengths than when I used an eight ounce blast or higher. If 
time is given for the steel to melt and mix with the cast iron, 
the total carbon will be lower than if the cast iron of the mix- 
ture flows rapidly past the steel and has no chance to unite. 
For this reason it is also better to place the large pieces of steel 
low in the cupola, and the smaller pieces above. This allows 
the cast iron to wash it as it goes down, and unite with the steel, 
making a low carbon cast with consequent strength. 

The reduction of the total carbon by steel additions makes 
the resulting castings very much denser. If the sulphur is con- 
trolled by hot melting and high enough manganese, and the 
phosphorus kept down (my best work has been with phosphorus 
about 0.230 per cent.) very serviceable castings are made. 

Silicon and Sulphur. — Another point that will be observed in 
this steel scrap melting is the rather great irregularity of the 
silicon reduction in hot runs, and in the sulphur content. The 
latter shows wide variation. Silicon, on the. other hand, usually 
runs about 0.25 per cent, loss in normal heats, but is much 
greater if the temperature rises rapidly. The deflection is 
better when the sulphur is low. 

The following arc some results that may be of interest : 
Metal which would have f-inch chill and be entirely gray when 



SEMI-STEEL. 219 

cast in sand, in the i-inch square section, had siHcon, 0.82 per 
cent.; sulphur, 0.097 P^r cent.; phosphorus, 0.23 per cent,; 
and manganese, 0.54 per cent. This metal in a bar i X i X 24 
inches broke at 1,800 pounds with a deflection of 0.38 inch. 
The percentage of steel carried was 7. The coke used con- 
tained sulphur, 0.54 per cent. ; phosphorus, 0.63 per cent. 

Another test gave silicon, 0.88 per cent. ; sulphur, 0.08 1 per 
cent. ; phosphorus, 0.24 per cent. ; manganese, 0.67 per cent. 
The test bar broke at 2,200 pounds with 0.40 inch deflection, 
and the charge contained 20 per cent, steel. 

A third test gave silicon, 0.58 per cent. ; sulphur, 0.097 P^^ 
cent.; phosphorus, 0.25 per cent.; manganese, 0.44 per cent. 
The bar broke at 2,250 pounds with 0.48 inch deflection, and 
had 23 per cent, steel scrap (structural material). 

Another good mixture gave silicon, 0.79 per cent. ; sulphur, 
0,081 per cent.; phosphorus, 0.239 per cent, and manganese. 
0.64 per cent. This carried 2ii per cent, steel scrap. 

I find that to get the strongest bars, I have to keep pretty 
close to these analyses, and have made my strongest bar at 
2,350 pounds, with O.55 inch deflection. The iron had a fine 
grain, was low in graphite, but machined nicely. 

When ferro-manganese was used, about i per cent, was found 
to be best. The above resulting compositions are intended for 
castings ranging from i to 2^ inches in section. Should heavier 
work be required it is better to run the silicon in the pig up to 
2.75 per cent., add the manganese up to 2 per cent., and to use 
33 i per cent, steel scrap. 

THE WEARING QUALITIES OF SEMI-STEEL VERSUS GRAY IRON. 
GRAY IRON PLUS STEEL SCRAP OR WITHOUT IT, THE CHAR- 
' ACTERISTICS OF SEMI-STEEL AND THE PURPOSES FOR 
WHICH IT IS BEST FITTED, ALSO CERTAIN CAU- 
TIONS NECESSARY TO GREATEST SUCCESS 
WITH STEEL SCRAP IN THE CUPOLA. 

BY JAMES A. MURPHY. 

Perhaps the question may be better stated. Is gray iron con- 



2 20 FOUNDRY IRONS. 

taining from 15 to 25 per cent, of steel scrap in the mixture 
superior in wearing qualities to common strong machinery gray 
iron? 

When the steel is properly melted and used in the right pro- 
portions for the job in hand, I unhesitatingly answer, Yes, when 
when both mixtures are from the cupola. Semi-steel is the 
mermaid of the metallurgical world. There are those who say 
of it as Sailor Jack of the mythical mermaid, " There ain't no 
such thing in natur'." 

The term semi-steel is a misnomer and like "gun iron" and 
other popular names given ostensibly to denote a superior article 
or hide a supposed secret process of manufacture. Semi-steel 
is a trade name having the one redeeming quality that it is meant 
to express the fact that some percentage of steel was used in the 
mixture and with the hope that this will convey the idea of a 
superior quality of gray iron. 

Scmi-stccl and Air-fiiniace Iron. — Semi-steel is no better, if 
properly made, than an air-furnace iron reduced from cold-blast 
charcoal iron. On this hinges the whole question. For strength 
in any form, homogeneity and fine wearing qualities, it is far 
superior to the ordinary mixture made from all gray iron in 
either cupola or air furnace, provided it is mixed and melted 
right and the proper proportions used for the purpose in hand. 

For steam, gas, hydraulic and other cylinders it has no supe- 
rior in great strength, rigidity and closeness of grain, homoge- 
neity and durability. Steel becomes such in the first place by 
the elimination of carbon, principally, and it again returns to 
cast iron when reduced in the cupola in the presence of fuel; as 
it again absorbs carbon, just as any other iron does in its orig- 
inal production in the blast furnace. 

No Steel in it. — There is no steel nor any sign of it in semi- 
steel. The only way we know it is by its fracture, the grain 
being fine, the carbon particles being minute and finely dis- 
tributed, giving a very close and even fracture in even the 
thickest sections, being in that resyiect equal to and mostly su- 
perior to good air-furnace iron. 



SEMI-STEEL. 221 

Semi-steel, to use its popular name, has many enemies, prin- 
cipally among those who have been failures in its production, 
and they are legion. Neither all foundries nor all foundrymen 
can successfully melt steel scrap in the cupola, nor do they know 
how to mix it for attaining a desired result. It is to these 
causes, together with a general metallurgical ignorance, that the 
many dismal failures in the use of steel may be attributed. 

" It does not mix" is a sort of cant expression. Many can- 
not keep it from running to holes. Others cannot keep it from 
chilling. Some have experienced such a combination of troubles 
that they could not be described in a short article, all of which, 
however, are caused by unscientific mixing, bad melting, and in 
some cases bad molding and pouring practice. 

Mistakes in Alelting and Mixing. — I would venture to say 
that a cylinder cast from this unmixed metal or one in which 
white spots, streaks or patches show up in the bore or valve seats 
after being machined, would be unfit for use, as it would wear 
and cut very rapidly. Such spots are not unknown in all gray- 
iron mixtures, for if the metal is not melted right, whether by 
oxidation, burning or melting at too low a temperature in the 
cupola, spots and streaks invariably show up on the finished sur- 
faces as white iron. 

Failures and Founders- — All engine builders who aim for the 
highest possible quality use either air-furnace iron or semi-steel 
in their cylinders. Some even chill the bore, but whether this 
last method has any advantage over semi-steel or air-furnace 
iron is a much -debated question; the bore is so close that the 
lubricating effect of the carbon pits and particles is almost en- 
tirely lost. The melancholy failures that have been the portion 
of many in attempting semi-steel have been the result of no 
other reason that I can see than the lack of a competent foun- 
dryman in their employ. These people usually join the Knock- 
ers' Club on the steel proposition. 

Praetical Requirements. — It is surprising at this stage of ad- 
vancement in the foundry industry to still find people who ought 
to know better saying that steel and iron do not mix or make a 



222 FOUNDRY IRONS. 

perfect alloy. When wrought iron or hard steel is used, this is 
often true, but neither of these is fit for the purpose in the 
smallest degree, the assertions of some metallurgical authorities 
on the subject to the contrary notwithstanding. In my owii 
practice I never use wrought iron or hard steel and I would not 
advise anyone to do so. They will mix, bat the temperature of 
the cupola can never be relied upon to reduce them properly, 
and for machine or finished work they are unfit for use. 

Rc/ics on Steel Scrap. — After a long and varied experience in 
the engine and heavy jobbing business. I have nothing but the 
highest regard for steel scrap and the greatest confidence in its 
efficiency, having often found it to be the great panacea for the 
ills to which castings are heir. It closes the grain, reduces the 
graphitic and total carbon according to the percentage used, and 
what is more important, through its quicker cooling distributes 
it more minutely and evenly throughout the section. It pre- 
vents sponginess and segregation, lessens liability to cracking, 
adds to the tensile and transverse strength, increases deflection 
and modulus of rupture, gives a high resistance to shock, is 
higher in sulphur than air-furnace metal, which latter is an ad- 
vantage in wearing qualities. On the whole it is so far superior 
in every way to common gray machinery iron for cylinder work 
that there is but very little comparison between them. 

IS SEMI-STEEL A MISNOMER? 
BY DAVID MCLAIN. 

Twenty years ago, foundrymen generally agreed that there 
was no such metal as semi-steel. In the early days, castings 
made from steel mixtures were hard, filled with blow holes and 
resembled the defective crucible steel castings of that period. 
Many foundrymen still assert that there is no mixture which 
can be properly termed semi-steel. They claim that the two 
metals do not mix; that the steel does not unite with the iron 
and castings containing steel have many hard spots. Never- 
theless, at the present time semi-steel castings, such as small 



SEMI-STEEL. 223 

cylinder heads, cylinders, piston rings, ammonia castings of 
comparatively light section, generator sections, etc., containing 
as high as 30 per cent, of steel scrap, can be made in the foun- 
dry at a lower cost than many fancy iron mixtures. I have a 
letter in my possession dated February 1, 1904, from one of 
our most noted foundry metallurgists condemning the use of 
the term semi-steel. However, my method of producing this 
mixture was commended. Referring to my practice of using 
from 30 to 40 per cent, of steel scrap in the mixture and quot- 
ing from his letter, this metallurgist said: "I can only, there- 
fore, congratulate you on this work, and hope you may reap 
some good returns from it. Nevertheless, it seems a pity that 
others should be made to lose money all the time from the 
lack of this information." An eminent electrical engineer a few 
months later wrote as follows: " Regarding the use of semi- 
steel castings in direct-current generators and motors, would 
say that I have found it possible to work both in density and 
cross section just half way between steel and cast iron. In 
other words, a cast-iron magnet frame that would require 100 
square inches of metal would only require 75 of semi-steel and 
50 of steel. It is particularly useful for machines in which the 
speed is from 10 to 20 per cent, lower than that of standard 
types." 

Heretofore the electrical engineer had only two metals, iron 

and steel, to consider. Now he has iron, steel and . In 

some cases there is as high as 50 per cent, steel in the rtiixture. 
Would you call it semi-steel? 

J. Jay Metzger gives in Castings the following semi-steel 
mixtures for gasoline engine cylinders. There are various mix- 
tures of iron for cylinders. According to analysis no two are 
alike. Each foundryman thinks that his is the best, and not 
without reason either ; but what would apply to one make of 
cylinders with success may fail in others of different construc- 
tion. Therefore, it is quite a problem to create a mixture that 
will insure a close grain and stand wear and tear. The follow- 
ing mixtures have been used successfully: 



224 FOUNDRY IRONS. 

No. I. 

Pig silicon, 2.50 per cent 300 pounds. 

Remelt, silicon, 2 per cent 1,200 pounds. 

Boiler plate steel 500 pounds. 

Fertosilicon, 50 per cent 3Jrt pounds. 

Ferromanganese, 80 per cent 9 pounds. 

Pure aluminum i pound. 

First charge the steel on the bed, then add 200 potinds of 
coke; charge the pig, then the remelt; place the silicon and 
aluminum in the ladle. Use ground ferro-manganese and pour 
it in the spout when the iron is running. Do not, under any 
circumstances, mix the steel with the cast iron in the cupola or 
you will get the steel in the following charge. Use 72-hour 
coke not to exceed 7.5 per cent, in sulphur and of firm struc- 
ture. The aluminum is needed to deoxidize the mixture; it is 
necessary to prevent gas holes. 

A Close Grain that Machines Easily. — The above mixture 
carries a big percentage of remelt, but that is better than a 
large amount of pig iron and will have a very close grain and 
machines very easily. Do not use steel unless you add the 
manganese. This mixture is sometimes called semi-steel and 
it is exceptionally good for cylinders and pistons. The steel is 
the cutting and trimmings from regular boiler plate. 

No. 2. 

Charcoal pig silicon, 2 per cent 500 pounds. 

Remelt. silicon, 2 per cent 1.3CO pounds. 

Boiler plat e steel 200 pounds. 

Ferrcsilicon, 50 per cent 2 p9unds. 

Ferromanganese, 80 per cent 8 pounds. 

Pure aluminum i pound. 

Mix No. 2 according to the directions given for No. i. 

Silicon and Manganese. — The silicon in No. i should run 
about 1.45 per cent., and in No. 2 about 1.50 per cent, in the 
casting. 

The manganese in No. i should run about 65 per cent, and 
in No. 2 about 70 per cent. 



SEMI-STEEL. 225 

The above mixtures are perfectly reliable. Be accurate in 
weighing and charging. 

No. 3. For Piston Rings. 

Charcoal, silicon 2 per cent 800 pounds. 

Remell, silicon, 1.50 per cent 1,100 pounds. 

Boiler steel 100 pounds. 

Pure aluminum » i pound. 

Quality of Piston Rings. — Charge this mixture the same as 
No. I. The silicon should run about 1.35 per cent, and man- 
ganese about 0.40 per cent, in casting. This mixture is very 
good. It machines nicely and the rings are springy. The 
silicon seems to be very low, but it is important that the rings 
should be on the hard side. 

Note. — There is a wide difference of opinion among chem- 
ists as well as foundrymen as to the per cent, of manganese a 
semi-steel should contain, some claiming 0.40 and others 1.60. 
The best per cent, probably depends upon the quality or kind 
of iron used in the mixture, a strong iron requiring less than a 
weak one. 

Semi-steel properly mixed and melted requires no aluminum 
to produce sound castings and its use has been discontinued by 
all practical semi-steel founders. 

Mixture jor six-inch cylinder, thickness five-eighths inch. 

Silicon 
Per cent. Per Cent. 

50 Coke iron, 2.20 Silicon i.io 

10 Car Wheel, 0.60 " 0.06 

10 Steel Scrap, 

30 Cast Scrap, i .80 " 0.54 

Total Silicon i .70 

Mixture for twenty-inch cylinder, thickness one and one-half inches. 

Silicon, 
Per Cent. Per Cent. 

40 Coke Iron, 2.20 Silicon 0.88 

10 Car Wheel, 0.60 " 0.06 

20 Steel Scrap, 

30 Cast Scrap, i .80 " 0.54 

Total Silicon 1.48 



226 FOUNDRY IRONS. 

If any of these mixtures fail to give a satisfactory metal it is 
not due to the steel or car wheel scrap, but to the unknown 
quality of the pig and scrap, which should be varied or another 
quality substituted in the mixture. 

Semi-Steel Gears. — A good mixture for gears should carry 
about 25 per cent, steel scrap. This can be made of pig iron, 
machinery scrap and steel scrap. The pig iron should have 
approximately the following analysis : 

Per Cent. 

Silicon 3.25 

Sulphur 0.C4 

Phosphorus 0.50 

Manganese 0.75 

Use about 50 per cent, pig iron, 25 per cent, machinery 
scrap, 24 per cent, steel scrap and i per cent, ferro-manganese 
in the cupola. Have the metal hot. The semi-steel should 
have approximately the following composition : 

Per Cent. 

Silicon 2.00 

Sulphur CIO 

Phosphorus 0.50 

Manganese 0.60 

Graphitic carbon 2.40 

Combined carbon i.oo 



CHAPTER XVI. 

Malleable Iron. 

History. — The discovery of the process of making malleable 
iron appears to have been due, many years ago, to the efforts of 
numerous founders to soften hard castings by annealing them in 
contact with various substances. In 1722, Reaumur collected 
the results of these operations and published the fundamental 
principles of making malleable iron, but this knowledge does 
not appear to have at that early date been reduced to a practical 
science even in Europe. So little of foundry history or prac- 
tice was published in early days, that there is no telling when 
the process of making real malleable castings was first practised 
in foreign countries. But it is not likely that there was any 
real malleable plant at that early day, and even at this time the 
output of malleables is very small, being estimated for 1907, at 
only 50,000 tons for all Europe. 

History in this Country. — Malleable iron founding was 
first started in this country by Mr. Seth Boyden, in the year 
1826, at No. 28 Orange Street, Newark, N. J. It v/as there 
that he began casting and annealing buckles and bits for harness 
makers, and it was from him that all the malleable iron foun- 
dries learned the art of decarbonizing castings and giving to 
them the strength of wrought iron, the material from which 
such things were forged prior to this date. In 1828, the 
Franklin Institute of Phila., Pa., offered a silver medal for the 
best specimen of annealed cast iron, to consist of not less than 
one dozen pieces; the following is taken from the report of a 
committee, of that year: 

" Premium No. 4, for the best specimen of annealed cast iron, 
is awarded to Seth Boyden of Newark, N. J., for specimen No. 
163, being an assortment of buckles, bits, and other castings 

(227) 



228 FOUNDRY IRONS. 

remarkable for their smoothness and malleabihty. This is the 
first attempt in this country to anneal cast iron for general pur- 
poses that has come under the knowledge of your committee, 
and the success attending it fully entitles the maker to a silver 
medal." 

Mr. Boyden continued in the business for nine years during 
which time he established quite an extensive trade, and his 
plant grew from a very small foundry to one employing sixty 
moulders which was quite a large one for those days. 
But Mr. Boyden was a natural-born investigator and inventor 
and not one of those that could stay at any one thing very long 
and, in 1835, he sold out the business to The Boston Malleable 
Cast Iron and Steel Co., which failed two years later, when the 
plant passed into other hands and since that time has been 
managed by a number of firms, but is still in existence at the 
old stand, although very little of Mr. Boyden's original plant 
remains. 

Although Newark has been the home of many prominent 
foundrymen, among them Mr. Mackenzie, the designer of the 
famous two-hour Mackenzie Cupola, which was the first real 
improvement made in the construction of cupolas in this 
country, Seth Boyden is the only one to whose memory a 
monument has been erected in the city park. This monument 
which is cast in bronze with the inscription, " Seth Boyden, 
Inventor " stands almost within a stone's throw of the sight of 
his original malleable plant. 

Soon after Seth Boyden's discovery of annealing castings, 
which he failed to patent, Newark became the center of malle- 
able foundings, there being at one time eight plants in operation 
in that city. In 1837, Alex Boyden, a brother of Seth Boyden, 
established a malleable plant in Boston, Mass., and in 1850, one 
was operated in Cincinnati, Ohio, and in this way the business 
has spread from Newark all over the country until the output 
of malleables in this country, has grown from a few pounds, at 
Seth Boyden's plant in 1826, to an estimated output of 980,000 
tons for 1907. 



MALLEABLE IRON. 2 29 

In 1882, the writer met Mr. William G. Morris, whose father 
had been an apprentice of Seth Boyden, and he himself had 
grown up in the Boyden plant, and became the practical man- 
ager of it and was regarded as one of the highest authorities in 
the art of malleable iron making in this country. It was about 
this time that Mr. Morris had gotten hold of the writer's first 
work, " The Founding of Metals," in which he was very much 
interested and an intimate acquaintance sprang up between us. 
It was from Mr. Morris that the writer first learned that Seth 
Boyden had gone through exactly the same experiments as 
himself when engaged in the malleable business in 1872, and 
tried everything imaginable as a packing for annealing such as 
sand, plaster of paris, lime, borax, salt, saltpetre, alum, various 
pulverized iron ores, etc., without any satisfactory results, the 
same as probably every investigator in this line has done before 
settling down, as Selh Boyden did, to the red oxide of iron as 
the best material known for packing in annealing malleables, 
and also to certain brands and grades of iron which from ex- 
perience have proved to be the best for making malleable 
castings. 

In Seth Boyden's first experiments all his iron was melted in 
crucibles, probably because he desired only a limited number 
of castings for his experim-cnts in annealing, but as soon as he 
had done his experimental work, he constructed an air furnace 
from which the iron was dipped in small hand ladles coated 
outside and within with clay For use in this furnace he 
.patented, in 1831, a fuel composed of fine coal, rosin, pitch, or 
tar in suitable proportions for the intensity of heat desired. 
This fuel was designed to produce the flame required in air- 
furnace melting. In 1832, he constructed a cupola to take the 
place of the air furnace, using anthracite coal as a fuel. 

Patterns were made of wood, white metal, brass and iron, and 
attached to gates. Flasks were made of sheet iron and round 
so that there might not be any spring to them, and castings were 
cleaned in a wooden tumbling barrel with a door on the side, 
and furnished with holes to permit the sand to escape from the 



230 FOUNDRY IRONS. 

barrel. His annealing pots were made of iron and, upon the 
whole, he appears to have covered the ground so thoroughly 
that since his day very little, if any improvement has been made 
in the process of manufacturing malleable iron, and it remains 
the same, although chemistry has explained it, and better facili- 
ties have been provided for doing the work. 

Iron for Malleables. — The most important factor in the mak- 
ing of malleables is a suitable quality of iron to begin with, for 
without this no satisfactory product can be turned out. The 
best iron for this purpose is the cold blast charcoal iron a num- 
ber of brands of which are considered the standard or best, 
among them being the Mable, Briar Hill, Hinckley, Ella, etc. 
Other local brands used in different sections of the country are 
equally good. Of these irons only the higher numbers, rang- 
ing from three to eight, are used, because the castings be- 
fore annealing must be practically free from graphite carbon, 
and present a perfectly clear white iron in the fresh fracture. 
Good malleables can be made from several grades of any one 
of these brands but, as in gray iron, a mixture of several brands 
is generally considered to give better results than one brand. 
At malleable plants, mixtures are guarded even more carefully 
than at gray iron foundries but, where brands of iron mentioned 
can be obtained, they are made about as follows, for a five-ton 
charge : 

Mabel 2500 lbs. 

Eriar Hill 15CO " 

Hinckley loco " 

Ella 1750 " 

Sprews 3250 " 

A mixture in which malleable scrap is used would with these 
irons be made about as follows : 

Mabel 2000 lbs. 

Briar Hill 1000 " 

Hinckley 500 " 

Ella 2000 " 

Sprews 3250 " 

Malleable Scrap 1 250 " 



MALLEABLE IRON. 23 1 

A mixture to which steel scrap is added is made about as 
follows : 

^Tabel 2COO lbs. 

Briar Hill icco " 

I linckley 500 " 

Ella 15C0 " 

Sprews 3250 " 

Malleable Scrap 1 250 " 

Steel Scrap 500 " 

In mixtures to which malleable scrap or steel scrap, or both, 
are added, a softer or higher silicon iron must be used than in 
all pig and sprew mixtures, to give life and fluidity to the iron 
for small castings. The following analysis is recommended for 
malleables : 

Silicon 0.75 to 1.50 per cent. 

Carbon 3.00 " 

Sulphur not over , c.04 " 

Manganese not over c.6o " 

Phosphorus not over 0.200 " 

Malleable Scrap, Sil 0.45 " 

This shows the analysis in the castings and in making mix- 
tures, but allowances must be made for loss in melting. The 
loss of silicon in air-furnace melting is about 0.35 per cent.; in 
cupola melting 0.25 per cent.; loss of carbon 0.25 to 0.50 per 
cent. 

Steel when used in malleable mixtures increases the shrink- 
age to so great an extent that not over 5 per cent, can be used 
without increasing the size of patterns to allovv for extra shrink- 
age in the casting. 

Coke Iron. — Coke and anthracite irons were years ago many 
times tried for malleables with almost complete failure. After 
the introduction of foundry chemistry they were again tried 
with little better results, and many heavy losses occurred, but of 
late years blast-furnace chemists have solved the problem of 
making coke iron suitable for malleable purposes, and iron 
known as coke-malleable is now regularly made at many fur- 



232 FOUNDRY IRONS. 

naces. For this iron certain brands of ore are used and a 
limited amount of mill cinder is added to the mixture. Plenty 
of coke is used in smelting and the iron smelted from this mix- 
ture, which contains from 0.75 to 1.75 per cent, silicon, is gen- 
erally considered to be equal to charcoal iron. It is doubted 
by many if this is really the case, but malleables are now regu- 
larly made from this iron and appear to give good satisfaction. 
All coke irons, however, are not suitable for this purpose and 
only those especially made and known as malleable pig are used. 
This pig is generally very high in manganese and that con- 
taining as high as 2 per cent, is used in mixtures. One foundry, 
whose reputation for good malleables stands very high, reports 
using this iron with 10 per cent, steel rails in their mixture. 

Malleable Scrap. — Malleable scrap for many years was a 
drug upon the market. The malleable founders or gray iron 
founders could not use it, rolling mills did not care for it, and 
in fact there was no market for it. A junk dealer who was 
stuck with a lot of it by a competitor is said to have shipped a 
lot to an imaginary customer in the west to get rid of it, and 
make his competitor believe he had found a market for it. 
But of late years malleable founders have been using it for cast- 
ing annealing boxes, and it is said to be the very best material 
for this purpose. It is also to some extent used in regular 
malleable mixtures, and is said to make a stronger casting than 
an all pig and sprew mixture, especially for heavy work. In 
this mixture it has about the same effect as steel, requiring a 
higher silicon pig to carry it and more fuel to melt it. But its 
effect is not so radical as that of steel and a larger per cent, of 
it can be used without so great an increase of silicon as with 
steel. Mixtures have been made with as high as 80 per cent, 
of malleable scrap, but such mixtures are difficult to run, the 
castings do not present a good appearance, and the common 
practice is not to use more than 20 per cent., and this amount 
principally for heavy work. 

Melting Fitrnaces. — At the first malleable plant in this 
country the iron, after the first experimental work had been 



MALLEABLE IRON. 233 

done, was melted in a hot air or reverberatory furnace, but after 
a few years' use of this furnace, a cupola was constructed and 
found to answer the purpose equally as well and melting was 
done at a less cost. From this time on to the introduction of 
coke irons for malleables, both furnaces were used with a large 
preponderance in favor of the cupola, which melted the iron 
more rapidly at less cost and, when the iron was right to begin 
with, produced as good malleables as the air-furnace. But with 
the introduction of coke iron and the necessity of testing and 
doctoring the iron before pouring into castings, the air-furnace 
took the lead and, according to data collected by the Foundry, 
in the February issue of 19 10, there are now in use in this 
country 369 air-furnaces, 21 open hearth furnaces, and 42 
cupolas. According to these data, the cupola would seem to be 
doomed as a furnace for malleables, but its use will no doubt be 
continued in those plants for boxes and other foundry castings, 
and it may again take the lead for malleables when the making 
of malleable pig becomes better understood, and there is less 
need of testing and doctoring it before pouring. The air-fur- 
nace, while more difficult and expensive to operate than a 
cupola, presents advantages that the latter does not possess. 
The iron may be seen during and after melting and, the bath of 
iron, as it is termed, after melting may be held in the furnace as 
long as desired. From this bath a small quantity may be 
dipped out and cast into test bars or pieces. Should the frac- 
ture indication of this piece not be satisfactory, the iron may be 
poled or boiled to thoroughly mix and remove graphite carbon, 
or this element may be added by addition of high-silicon iron 
or ferro-silicon. After the iron has been found to be right for 
the work to be cast, the furnace is tapped at both sides and 
thus the work can be more rapidly poured than from a cupola. 
These furnaces for malleable work are now generally run by a 
forced blast, which is blown into the closed ash pit, and places 
the furnace under better control of the operator than when de- 
pending upon the draft of a high stack. But even all these 
advantages of the air-furnace over the cupola do not always 



234 FOUNDRY IRONS. 

insure a perfect quality of iron, and heats are sometimes cast 
that do not pour well or produce a strong malleable when an- 
nealed which, to begin with, is no doubt due to unknown or 
uncontrollable elements in the iron, and a better knowledge of 
the latter may before long not only overcome this difficulty but 
restore the cupola to its former prestige, for without doubt it is 
the most economical furnace, is more easily controlled and, 
with a proper grade of iron, produces a malleable of as good a 
quality as the air-furnace. 

Shrinkage. — The shrinkage of white iron is about one-eighth 
of an inch to the foot greater than that of gray iron, and an 
allowance to this extent is made in patterns for malleables. 
However, in malleableizing a slight elongation takes place and in 
small malleable castings shrinkage is not a matter of any great 
importance so far as the size of the finished malleables is con- 
cerned as they compare very favorably with gray iron castings 
made from the same pattern. But in making the castings from 
malleableizing white iron, shrinkage is a matter of great import- 
ance, for while the shrinkage in length is only slightly greater 
than that of gray iron, the tendency to shrink and draw apart is 
far greater, and various schemes have to be resorted to to pre- 
vent this. Sharp angles have sometimes to be dispensed with, 
thin places have to be thickened, ribs have to be put on, parts 
of the casting cast in chills, crush cores used, etc., to prevent 
checking in the casting. These are matters that have to be met 
as they occur and means devised to overcome them to produce 
a perfect casting, for these defects are not improved by anneal- 
ing, and it is more profitable to scrap in perfect castings before 
than after annealing. 



CHAPTER XVII. 

Annealing of Malleables. 

Annealing Ovens. — Annealing ovens are constructed of a 
capacity to suit the size of the plant and character of the work. 
In large plants they are generally about seven feet high, twelve 
feet long, and eight feet wide, with an arched roof, and open at 
one or both ends, which are bricked up after the annealing pots 
are placed in the oven. Flues constructed in the sides and 
under the floor are so arranged as to convey the flame and heat 
evenly through the rows of annealing boxes, and thus produce 
an even temperature throughout the oven. The material used 
in constructing these ovens expands when -heated, and on cool- 
ing contracts to such an extent as to greatly injure them. It is 
therefore the practice to keep them hot after once being heated 
and, to admit of this being done, to construct them of such a 
size that the boxes, when hot, can be taken out and replaced by 
others without permitting the ovens to become cold. Natural 
draft, which is secured by a high chimney, is used for combus- 
tion of the annealing fuel, and the fires are carefully regulated 
during the whole period of annealing, which is from four to 
eight days, depending upon the character or size of the castings. 
During this period, the temperature is brought up to a bright 
cherry-red heat or about 1800° F. When bricking up the ends 
of the oven, sight holes are provided for observation, and the 
experienced annealer depends more upon the color of the heat 
and other indications than on thermometers, which are fre- 
quently unreliable. A blue flame thrown out at the joints of 
the boxes gives to the experienced operator an indication of the 
annealing process going on inside where the combined carbon 
leaves the iron to combine with the oxygen of the scale, and he 

(235) 



236 FOUNDRY IRONS. 

regulates his firing to suit this indication. After the anneaHng 
process is completed, the firing is relaxed, and the furnace per- 
mitted to cool down for a day or so. The ends of the oven are 
then removed and the boxes drawn out while hot and permitted 
to cool in the air. The furnace is at once refilled with boxes, 
which have been packed for annealing, and in this way the oven 
is kept hot, and annealing goes on continuously. Ovens are 
sometimes constructed with the floor on an incline to facilitate 
removing the boxes, the latter being pushed in at one end and 
out at the other. But this is not the common practice and the 
floors are generally constructed level. Various means are also 
provided for removing the hot boxes and replacing them with 
others for annealing. After the boxes removed from the fur- 
nace have cooled to a sufficient extent, they are dumped, and 
the castings picked out and cleaned in tumbling barrels or 
otherwise, and the scale is prepared for another heat, which re- 
quires several days. To make the process a continuous one, 
sufficient scale, boxes and castings must be provided so as to 
have another set of boxes ready to take the place of the one 
removed from the oven. Hence the importance of having the 
ovens of a size to suit the number of castings to be annealed. 

Revolving Annealing Ovens. — An entirely new style of an- 
nealing oven was designed and patented a few years ago by Mr. 
Walter S. Vosburgh, of Deposit. N. Y.. and now of Williams- 
port, Pa. 

This oven is constructed round of any desired diameter and 
the floor upon which the boxes are placed is arranged in such 
a manner that it may be revolved from the outside by means of 
a crank and gear. A door is placed in one side of the oven and 
a small crane is provided for placing the boxes to be annealed 
in the oven and removing them from it when annealed, without 
cooling the oven to any marked degree. The advantages 
claimed for this oven over the ordinary square one are that 
light and heavy castings maybe annealed in it at the same time, 
without danger of burning the light ones by too prolongied an- 
nealing, or injuring the heav)- ones by decreasing the heat of the 



ANNEALING OF MALLEABLES. 237 

oven in removing the light ones when sufficiently annealed. 
Before the malleable plant at Deposit, N. Y., went out of busi- 
ness, this oven was there in continuous use for over two years, 
and during this time small castings were successfully annealed 
and no bad effects upon the heavy castings noted, such as might 
have been due to the reduction of temperature of the oven from 
placing cold boxes in it during the process of annealing. 

This oven, if it can be as successfully manipulated as claimed 
for it, would no doubt be of value in many plants making a va- 
riety of castings, but not a sufficient quantity of any one size or 
weight to fill an oven, and also for turning out rush orders of 
small quantities of light castings. 

Annealing Boxes. — In the early days of malleable founding, 
annealing boxes were made bee-hive shape that the opening at 
the top might be small and more readily closed, and the cast- 
ings, after annealing, be readily removed. The ovens were low 
and only one set of boxes was placed in them. With the en- 
largement of ovens and piling of boxes, these boxes were no 
longer practicable and a plain round box was adopted, this shape 
being considered liable to the least warping, but it was found 
castings could not be packed in them to advantage. Later on 
the boxes were made square and at the present time they are 
generally made oblong and about 24 inches long, 15 inches wide 
and 15 inches deep. But the size and shape vary somewhat to 
suit the size or shape of the castings, or the fancy of the founder. 
The boxes designed for the bottom row are provided with a 
bottom which may be cast in or consist merely of a plate upon 
which the box is placed. The other boxes are simply frames 
designed to be placed upon the bottom boxes and upon each 
other. The boxes may be cast from gray iron, white iron or 
malleable scrap, but they are generally cast at the end of a heat 
from white iron, to which is frequently added a little condemned 
pig or other refuse iron collected about the plant, that is not de- 
sirable in a malleable mixture. But if a fairly good quality of 
iron is not used the boxes are liable to crack the first heat, 
which condemns them for further use, and if they should crack 



238 FOUNDRY IRONS. 

very badly may spoil the castings packed in them. Malleable 
scrap is said to make the best lasting boxes, but this metal 
cannot be melted and run into boxes by itself, and its last- 
ing qualities are determined by the per cent, of silicon pig 
melted with it to give it life and fluidity. Even the best of 
these boxes, after being used a certain length of time, which is 
determined by the quality of iron from which they are cast, be- 
come warped or bulged on the sides to such an extent that they 
are no longer fit for use and have to be replaced by new ones. 
The old boxes may be remelted and again run into boxes, but 
the iron in them has been so completely changed by heat that 
boxes cast from it are more liable to crack and warp, and it has 
been found more profitable to sell the old material at a nominal 
price per ton than to remelt it. The writer has never learned of 
wrought iron or steel boxes having been used for this purpose, 
but they have no doubt been tried. 

Packing the Boxes. — When packing the boxes the bottom 
box or plate upon which it rests is placed upon two blocks in 
such a manner that the prongs of the charging truck or machine 
can be placed underneath in lifting it to place it in the oven. 
A layer of scale is then placed over the bottom of the box ; 
upon this are carefully laid the castings to be annealed in such 
a manner that they do not touch each other, and scale is placed 
between them. When this layer has been covered with scale, 
other layers of castings and scale are put in in the same way, 
until the box is filled. Other boxes or sections are then put on 
and filled- in the same way, until they are built up to the desired 
height which is about five feet for the larger ovens, and for the 
smaller ones a corresponding height. The heavier the castings 
the more time is required for annealing, and in packing, the 
heavy castings are put in one set of boxes and the light ones in 
another for different ovens. When there is not a sufficient 
number of large castings to fill the oven, they are put together 
with the small ones in the hottest part of the same oven, and an 
attempt is made to give them more heat than the small ones, 
but this is a very unsatisfactory process and frequently fails to 



ANNEALING OF MALLEABLES. 239 

produce a good malleable. In packing, care is taken to place the 
castings in a position that will reduce warping to a minimum, but 
this frequently fails to produce the desired result, and the castings 
have to be put back into their original shapes after annealing. 
This is done by hammering, hydraulic pressure, drop hammer- 
ing, etc., and in some cases steel forms have to be made to get 
the castings back into their original shapes, considerable expense 
being in this way incurred. Nothing is gained by heating a 
malleable in straightening it, and the best results are obtained 
at the ordinary temperature or at about 50° to 100° F. After 
the boxes have been packed, the joints are carefully luted with 
clay, and the top is covered in the same way. They are then 
placed in the oven in two or four rows, with stacks a suffi- 
cient distance apart to admit of a free circulation of the heat 
around them. The ends of the oven are then closed with a 
temporary brick wall, after which firing and annealing are 
begun. 

Packing Material. — The generally accepted theory of the 
malleable cast iron process is that by treating the metal at a 
high heat with an oxide which will yield a portion of its oxygen 
to the carbon in the metal, the latter is decarbonized in conse- 
quence of the formation of carbonic oxide given off. The oxi- 
dizing agent usually employed is a thin scale of iron that falls 
from wrought iron in rolling, and is known as rolling mill scale. 
Red hematite iron ore is also to some extent used for this pur- 
pose. That these materials extract the carbon from the iron 
there can be no doubt, for when an iron too high in graphite is 
used, the castings are porous and the surface has the appearance 
of being full of small pin holes. When this occurs the iron is 
too high in carbon, and the castings are weak and imperfect. 
Another theory of malleables is that the carbon is not extracted 
from the iron, but changes its form under the influence of the 
long heat, the resulting product being malleable iron, and that 
this change may by a prolonged heat be effected without pack- 
ing, or with a packing of sand or clay. This theory was ex- 
ploded in the days of Seth Boyden, for while small malleables 



240 FOUNDRY IRONS. 

may be made in this way, it can only be done with a certain 
quality of iron, and even then they are inferior to those an- 
nealed with mill scale ; it is practically impossible to make 
heavy malleables in this way. In the malleableizing process 
carbon is the important factor, and the manipulation of this ele- 
ment determines the quality of the malleable. In annealing, the 
carbon is not entirely removed from the iron, and when the 
latter contains only the exact amount of carbon for a good mal- 
leable, prolonged heat will change the form of the carbon and 
any packing material that keeps the castings apart and excludes 
the air answers the purpose. But when there is an excess of 
carbon this must be removed or an inferior malleable is the re- 
sult. It is therefore more profitable to use a packing material 
that has the power to remove any excess of carbon the iron may 
contain. This material has by long experience been found to 
be rolling-mill scale, which can readily be reoxidized after each 
annealing heat, and lasts indefinitely. The burned scale falling 
from the annealing boxes can also be used for packing, and the 
amount of this material obtained from the boxes after each an- 
nealing heat is said to be sufficient to replace that lost, and to 
keep up the supply of scale. 

Red hematite ore answers the purpose equally well, but 
this material is not so readily reoxidized as scale and in time 
wears out and becomes worthless. 

Preparing the Scale. — The red oxide, or rust, upon the scale 
is what does the work in converting cast iron into malleable 
iron, and this has to be renewed after each annealing heat. 
This is done by spreading the scale out upon the floor, wetting 
it and permitting it to rust for several days. To increase the 
rusting tendency a variety of substances have been added to the 
water with which the scale is wet, such as sal-ammoniac, salt, salt- 
petre, etc. But none of these substances have any effect in the 
annealing process, they being only used to save time in rusting 
the scale, and as good malleables can be produced by wetting 
the scale with clear water. However, sal-ammoniac is com- 
monly used, as it rusts the scale more rapidly than clear water, 



ANNEALING OF MALLEABLES. 241 

and when business is rushing anything that saves time is of value. 
In preparing the scale it is spread out upon the floor in a thin 
layer and wet with just sufficient water to corrode it. As it be- 
comes dry it is wet again, and raked or turned over, and this is 
repeated until the scale is properly rusted, which can only be 
determined by experience. This is the only preparation of the 
scale that is necessary, but before rusting it should be occasion- 
ally passed through a very fine riddle to remove sand and dust 
from it, as such substances, although they may by themselves 
be used for annealing, are not desirable in scale annealing. 

Time Required for Amiealing. — The time required for anneal- 
ing an ovenful of malleables depends upon the size and thick- 
ness of the castings, the size of the packing boxes, the quick or 
slow heating tendency of the oven, etc. More time is required 
for annealing heavy or thick castings than light ones, for heating 
through large boxes than small ones and bringing them up to 
the annealing point, as well as for bringing the castings up to 
this point in an oven with a poor draft or badly arranrged flues. 
The time therefore varies to a considerable extent, but it may 
be said to be from six to ten days of actual time in the oven. 
A high heat of 1800° to 1900° F. is said to anneal more rapidly, 
but a lower heat of from 1600° to 1800° F". is claimed to pro- 
duce a stronger iron. But thermometer indications above 600 
degrees are as a rule unreliable, and annealing is generally done 
by the indications of the oven which to the expert operator are 
a better guide than the thermometer. However, in large plants 
managed by supposed experts, the use of a thermometer fre- 
quently saves the annealer considerable trouble when the castings 
turned out are not satisfactory. Malleable founders have adver- 
tised to turn out malleables in two or three days, but it has been 
noticed that it takes from two to three weeks to get the malleables 
if the}' are any good. Any white iron may be annealed in this 
length of time and made a soft iron, but it has not yet been 
malleableized in so short a time. Numerous schemes have been 
devised for quick annealing by the use of chemicals and various 
substances, but up to the present time they have all proved fail- 
16 



242 FOUNDRY IRONS. 

ures so far as the production of malleable iron on a practical or 
commercial scale is concerned, although fine specimens said to 
have been produced by the quick annealing process on a small 
scale have frequently been shown. 

Cleaning Castings and Mallcablcs. — Before annealing, the 
castings must be thoroughly cleaned of all adhering sand, for 
this material not only interferes with annealing but makes the 
annealing scale dirty. The castings are very brittle and easily 
broken before annealing and in cleaning have to be handled with 
care to avoid breaking. Cleaning is generally effected in very 
small tumbling barrels which are frequently lined with hard 
wood ; they are run very slow for ver}- light castings and 
only a limited amount of them is put in at a time. Heavier 
castings are tumbled in the ordinary gray-iron tumbling barrel, 
and light frames that are easily broken are cleaned with a steel 
brush or sand blast. After annealing, the castings may be tum- 
bled to any extent, and are gencralh- tumbled until they shine 
as if polished. Castings that become heavily coated with an- 
nealing oxide are sometimes cleaned in an acid bath after which 
they are dipped in a lime-water bath to kill the acid in the iron. 
But this is seldom necessary, for the tumbling barrels, if prop- 
erly arranged and provided with stars, generally do the work. 

Physical Properties of Malleable Iron. — Malleable iron re- 
sembles wrought iron in strength but lacks the fibrous structure 
of the latter due to rolling, and therefore cannot be drawn or 
welded in the common acceptance of these terms. But a good 
malleable may be drawn and shaped by very careful heating and 
hammering, and has been welded b}^ expert welders. The ten- 
sile strength of malleable iron is from 40,000 to 50,000 lbs., 
and that of a good qualit)' of cast iron from 20,000 to 30,000 
lbs. to the square inch. It is therefore much stronger than the 
best cast iron and is not subject to fracture from a blow or jar, 
as the latter is. The transverse strength of a one inch square 
malleable bar, is about 4,000 lbs., but this strength is not con- 
sidered of so great importance as in cast iron, for malleables are 
generally small and seldom submitted to any great extent to this 



ANNEALING OF MALLEABLES, 243 

strain. The torsion or twisting test is the one commonly re- 
sorted too by founders of malleables to show customers the 
quality of their iron. This test is made by placing a flat bar of 
malleable iron in a vise and twisting it several times around with 
a large monkey wrench. Several of these samples are generally 
kept on hand for exhibition. The test in itself amounts to 
but little for the iron is subjected to but little strain in twisting 
and any fairly good malleable will stand this strain. Another 
test for exhibition is bending the piece into a circle and doub- 
ling it over on itself v/ithout cracking at the bend. It requires 
a good malleable to stand this test without showing any cracks 
or indication of fracture. 



CHAPTER XVIII. 

PRODUCTION OF MALLEABLE IRON. 

The Making of Malleable Iron as a Business. — As a business, 
gray iron founding is very trying and disappointing. With the 
best of molders, patterns, flasks, sand, etc., castings upon which 
many hours arid days work have to be paid for, are frequently 
lost. If perfect, the iron may be too hard, soft, or week for 
the casting, and the latter be condemned, and in this way heavy 
losses are frequently sustained. But these are nothing as com- 
pared with the chances taken by the malleable iron founder, for 
while the gray-iron founder may in a few hours or days turn 
out and deliver a perfect casting, from two to four weeks are 
required to mold, anneal, and turn out a batch or large ovenful 
of malleables, and at the end of this time part or all of them 
may turn out to be bad, due to imperfect patterns, bad mold- 
ing, poor iron for malleables, bad packing, imperfect oxidation 
of the packing scale, irregular firing of the oven, overheating, 
underheating, etc. The expense for labor, fuel, and other sup- 
plies required in producing this batch of malleables have to be 
paid for, and the entire loss falls upon the founder. Two to 
four weeks are required to reproduce the castings, and the cus- 
tomer, who has been waiting all this time for them, may take 
his patterns away or cancel his order. Altogether, there is not 
a more trying business than malleable iron founding. On a 
smale scale, a malleable foundry cannot be made to pay unless 
the founder has a special line of castings of about the same size 
or thickness and a sufficient quantity to keep his furnaces and 
ovens in constant operation, for additional expense is incurred 
b}' permitting ovens to become cold, for repairs, and fuel in 
heating. Very small light castings cannot be properly annealed 

(244) 



PRODUCTION OF MALLEABLE IRON. ' 245 

in the same box or oven with large ones, although they are fre- 
quently put in to fill up the holes, and different grades of iron 
are required for various classes of castings. For these reasons, 
malleable founding tends towards large plants with numerous 
furnaces and ovens in which iron for various-sized castings, may 
be melted and annealed. A small malleable plant in connection 
with a gray iron foundry, as the writer learned from experience 
many years ago, cannot be made to pay, for the business is 
almost as separate and distinct from gray iron founding, as the 
running of a rolling mill or blast furnace ; in fact, about the only 
thing in it having a resemblance to this business is the molding 
and cleaning of the castings. The smallest plant of this kind 
the writer ever knew to pay, was one with a daily capacity of 
about 5 tons, and having a specialty for from three to four-fifths 
of this amount. With a specialty covered by letters patent, for 
which a gilt-edge price can be demanded, the profits of the 
plant are greatly enhanced, and many of the large plants have 
one or more of this line, and when business is dull frequently 
fill in with jobbing work, at almost any price, to keep the plant 
running. The cost of producing malleable castings, -which are 
generally of the bench-work line and small, is about one cent 
per pound more than that for gray iron castings of the same 
grade. The price at which they are sold, varies as in gray 
iron, with their size and the difficulty of molding, annealing, 
etc., and with the demand for malleables. In good times they 
have sold as high as 8 cents per lb. for the standard line of 
castings and jobbing work, while in dull times they have sold as 
low as 2 cents per lb., which of course is at a loss, for with the 
high price for labor in this country no malleable can be pro- 
duced at any such price, no matter how low the price of mal- 
leable pig. A malleable plant is more expensive to construct 
and manage than a gray iron one and, owing to the greater 
length of time required to turn out an order of castings, from 
three to four times the working capital is required to run the 
business. 

But that there is room for an extension of this line of found- 



246 FOUNDRY IRONS. 

ing would seem to be indicated by data collected by The Foun- 
dry, which show that in 1907 there were in the United States 
only 131 malleable plants, with an estimated capacity of 1,291,- 
484 tons, and an output of 969,399 tons, and that in 19 10 the 
number of plants had only increased to 168. 



CHAPTER XIX. 

Foundry Notes. 

All white irons or low-silicon irons do not chill to an extent 
that gives a satisfactory depth of chill; hence they do not im-, 
part chilling properties to other irons when mixed with them. 
The chill test should be used on all irons for chilled castings. 

Annealing Cast Iron. — Pack the castings in sand, charcoal or 
saw dust, in iron boxes. Heat to a bright red, which will take 
about twelve hours, in an oven. Allow the castings to cool 
slowly in the boxes for twelve hours. Castings may be annealed 
in this way without packing, but packing prevents warping to 
some extent. Any hard casting may be softened by annealing 
in this way ; even a half-inch chill may be removed if the heat 
is sufficiently prolonged. 

Hard castings may be softened by heating in a forge or ordi- 
nary fire, but the time required to heat them is so short and, when 
removed from the fire, the}/ cool too rapidly to be softened to 
any great extent. To increase the annealing process, heat and 
cool slowly. 

Malleable scrap, when melted alone, produces white iron in 
castings. Owing to the low content of silicon, carbon, and phos- 
phorus in malleable scrap, it does not make a satisfactory mix- 
ture with foundry- irons for soft castings, and it is only when the 
pig melted with it is high in these elements that it can be used. 
Only a very small amount of malleable scrap can be used in the 
ordinary foundry mixture without its hardening or spotting effect 
being seen in soft castings. Malleable scrap is sometimes added 
to car-wheel mixtures of coke iron to aid in producing chill. 

A good ladle flux that increases the fluidity of iron prevents 
small holes in castings due to gas in the iron. 

(247) 



248 FOUNDRY IRONS. 

Blow holes may be due to wet sand, hard ramming, improper 
venting, damp cores and gas in the iron. 

The Foundry-men's Associations are doing a great deal for the 
advancement and development of the foundry industry ; to reap 
the benefit of their work, the founder must use a little common 
sense. 

It is more profitable to use an extra hundredweight of coke 
to melt iron hot, than it is to lose a hundredweight of castings 
from dull iron. 

Steel increases the strength of cast iron to a greater extent 
and with more certainty of results than vanadium, and at a 
greatly reduced cost. 

Vanadium, when melted with charcoal iron, gives better re- 
sults as to increase in strength than with coke pig, 

A low-silicon iron shows a greater increase in strength when 
melted with vanadium than a high-silicon iron. The lower the 
silicon, the better the results. 

Vanadium, when melted in a regular soft foundry mixture for 
soft castings, gives no increase in transverse or tensile strength. 

Vanadium is claimed to greatly increase the strength of a 
semi-steel. 

At the present price of steel scrap, it is cheaper to make a 
semi-steel, than an iron mixture with cast iron scrap. 

Rat tail on covers is due to an accumulation of gas in the 
mould and may be overcome by freely venting the surface and 
back of the cover. It is also formed by blacking dusted on the 
mould, it being washed before the iron into ridges on the sur- 
face of the mould. Use a better grade of blacking or less of it 
on covers or other pieces upon which rat tail appears. 

Rat tail is also due to lack of fluidit}' in the iron. The iron 
of the different streams thrown into the mould from the gate 
rolls over in filling the mould, and the undersides of the streams 
when they come together do not unite to form a perfect casting, 
and leave the rat tail. 

Any mixture of cast iron that can be punched when cold, due 
to a jet of steam being thrown into the cupola at the tuyeres, can 
be punched just as readily without the steam being used. 



FOUNDRY NOTES. 249 

When a large per cent, of steel is added to cast iron for cast- 
ings the mould should be made of silica sand with just enough 
loam to bind it and should be dried before casting. 

For gear-wheels, ferro-manganese as spiegel iron heated to a 
very high heat, and placed in the ladle to be melted by the iron, 
closes the grain of the latter and hardens it. 

Crusher jaws, drop weights, etc., requiring a very strong tough 
iron, may be made by adding sufficient spiegel iron to ordinary 
gray iron to give 3 to 6 per cent, manganese in the mixture. 

Test bars one inch square, twelve inches between centers, have 
shown 2,800 lbs. transverse strength in cupola melted iron; in 
air furnace melted iron, 3,200 to 3,400 lbs. 

Traftsverse strength for light castings should be 1,800 lbs., for 
medium heavy, 2,200 lbs., for special high strength medium, 
2,400 lbs., and for heavy 2,600 lbs. 

The average variation of transverse strength of test bars cast 
from the same iron, same ladle and from same runner, is about 
6 per cent. 

It is very difficult to accurately determine the loss of iron in 
cupola meitmg owing to carelessness of cupola men in weighing 
charges, recovering iron from dump, weighing over-iron etc. 
Figure the loss at 4 per cent, on pig and 8 per cent, on light 
scrap, and you strike it about right. 

To prevent blow holes in steel castings use about one ounce 
of aluminium in the ladle to 100 lbs of steel. 

Aluminium is of little value as ladle flux for cast iron. 

The cupola beats the air furnace out of sight for economical 
and fast melting, but the air furnace has the best of it for re- 
moving or adding metalloids. 

■ A cupola gives as good an iron as an air furnace, if you have 
a good healthy iron to begin with, but when the iron is sickly, 
and has to be doctored, give it a bath in the air furnace. 

Always melt cast iron and semi-steel hot and pour them hot. 

The heat in a cupola is not so great as that of a blast furnace 
in which cast iron is made, and iron when remelted is not heated 
to so high a temperature. It is therefore not possible to burn 
iron in a cupola by melting it hot. 



250 FOUNDRY IRONS. 

The best results in castings are obtained by melting cast iron 
hot and fast in a cupola. 

When iron run against a chill shows a light chill, or well-de- 
fined line between the soft and chilled iron, the silicon is too 
high in the iron for chilled castings, and a lower silicon iron, 
should be used if a good chill and strong iron are desired. 

To test limestone for iron pyrites or sulphur, wet the stone 
in the sun when the sulphur will appear in bright golden spots. 

Hard spots in castings may be caused by iron sputtering as 
it falls into a mold and the small globules being chilled by the 
damp sand before the molten iron reaches them. Such hard 
spots will generally be found on the bottom side of the casting 
and in clusters. To prevent this, gate the castings so that the 
iron will run in a good-sized stream over the mold and not 
sputter. Cast iron expands as the iron sets in a mold, and to 
this is due the filling of every little line in the casting. 

There are two losses in foundry iron, one in melting, the 
other in manipulation, and the latter may be the heaviest of the 
two. All iron not in sight or accounted for, is lost. 

To prevent shrink holes in castings that cannot be fed up, use 
a very low phosphorus iron. This iron sets more rapidly than 
a high phosphorus one, and shrink holes in hubs and the in- 
teriois of castings are not so liable to occur. To avoid dirt in 
castings decrease silicon in the mixtiu'e as low as possible, melt 
and pour iron hot. 

Uneven shrinkage in castings is generally due to uneven 
thickness in the pattern. Dont blame the poor iron for every- 
thing. 

High silicon causes sand to peal from castings more readih' 
than low silicon. 

For mine car wheels, soft foundr\- iron when mixed with old 
chilled wheels does not make a good mixture. The bulbs are 
generally too soft, even when the chill is right. Regular car 
wheel pig or a hard grade of foundry pig should be used with 
the old wheels. If the arms crack increase silicon. 

Silicon is the chemist's dope for all the ills of foundry irons. 



FOUNDRY NOTES. 25 I 

Grate bars are generally cast from any old iron that can be 
thrown into the cupola at the last of a heat, but a soft iron 
makes a better grate bar. 

Specifications furnished for grate bars by a prominent firm 
recently called for 40 per cent old grate bars in the mixture. 
The firm may have known what it was doing, or only experi- 
menting. 

W. J. Keep recommends a 2.75 silicon iron for grate bars. 
Stove grates are made of this iron and they stand the heat well. 

Iron does not absorb carbon or silicon from the melting fuel 
in a cupola, but to a limited extent loses both of these ele- 
ments. Hence iron is hardened in melting and a softer iron 
than is actually required in the castings has to be melted in a 
mixture to obtain the desired softness in them. Heat removes 
dirt and dross from iron, and the hotter it is melted and poured 
the cleaner it will be in castings. 

Silicon above 3.50 per cent drives carbon out of iron very 
rapidly and decreases its life and strength. Mixtures should 
not be made that give more than about 2.75 per cent silicon in 
the castings. 

P^or sash weights cast iron of any quality, pig or scrap, tin- 
plate, wrought iron and steel scrap, wire or any old iron or 
steel, may be melted, for it is not quality, but weight, of iron 
that is required in these castings. When iron is not fluid when 
very hot, phosphorus should be added to increase fluidity. The 
only way to add this element is to purchase pig high in phos- 
phorus for use in mixtures of sluggish iron. 

Molding sand is a porous substance that admits of gas gen- 
erated in a mold by molten iron coming in contact with its sur- 
face to escape from the mold. The troweling or slicking of the 
surface of a mold closes the pores and causes a blow or kick of 
the iron in the mold, due to explosion of gas under it. To pre- 
vent this, leave the mold as the pattern left it. Dust on black- 
ing and return the pattern to press it down, or apply blacking 
with a camel's-hair brush, and rub in with the hand if necessary. 

A little of some of the core compounds when mixed with 



252 FOUNDRY IRONS. 

ladle daubing leaves the ladle clean and increases the life of the 
lining; ten to fifteen per cent, compound by bulk is recom- 
mended. 

A clay daubing requires a high heat in drying to drive off the 
water of combination in the clay. If this is not driven out in 
drying, the iron will boil in the ladle until it is. 

A loam sand makes the best daubing material for small ladles, 
and a loam clay and sharp sand mixture the best for large ladles. 

A molder should never be permitted to build up a hand ladle 
with daubing to make it hold more iron. Such daubing fre- 
quently gives way and iron is spilled along the gangway. 

It is poor foundry practice to have every molder daub and 
dry his own ladle, for the time spent at such work decreases the 
output of castings. A molder is a high-priced man and should 
not be required to do work that can be done equally as well b}' 
a cheaper man. 

It is more profitable to employ laborers to shake out and take 
out castings, temper sand, and put the pattern and flask in place 
for the molder to go to work in the morning, than it is to have 
a molder do this work, even if he is working piece-work and 
does the laborer's work for nothing, because relieving the molder 
of this work keeps him in better condition and gives him more 
time for molding and increases his output of castings. The 
molders are the only producers in a foundry, all other employees 
being dependent for their wages upon the profits on the castings 
turned out by the molders. 

All unnecessary laborers, clerks, supers, etc., employed in a 
foundry decrease the foundryman's profits on his business. 

A certain amount of non-productive labor is necessary in 
every foundry, and the profits of a small foundry are not so 
great as those of a large one, for this non-productive labor is 
necessarily out of proportion to the number of molders em- 
ployed. 

The Use of Waste Coke. — Considerable partly burned coke 
falls from the cupola when the bottom is dropped and various 
ways have been devised for using it. It has been the common 



FOUNDRY NOTES. 253 

practice for years to pick out the larger pieces of this coke and 
put it back into the cupola at the next heat. The very small 
pieces are shoveled into the tumbling barrel together with the 
dump, ground up in tumbling and thrown into the foundry dump. 
Since the introduction of the water tumbling mill all the very 
small pieces of coke are saved. This coke is too small to be 
used in the cupola and the question has frequently been asked 
what to do with it. It may be used to good advantage for 
blacksmiths' fires. It may be mixed with coal and used as a 
core oven fuel, or in the foundry heating stoves, and in stoves 
for skin-drying molds. When all of it cannot be used up for 
these purposes it may be sold at a nominal price to employees 
for domestic use, as it makes an excellent fuel for cooking 
and heating stoves. 

Tinning Cast Iron. — To be successful in coating with tin the 
castings must be absolutely clean and free from sand and oxide. 
They are usually freed from imbedded sand in a rattler or 
tumbling box, which also tends to close the surface grain and 
give the articles a smooth, nietallic face. The articles are then 
placed in a hot pickle of I part of hydrochloric acid to 4 parts 
of water, in which they are allowed to remain from one to two 
hours, or until the recesses are free from scale and sand. Spots 
may be removed by a scraper or wire brush. The castings are 
then washed in hot water and kept in clean hot water until ready 
to dip. P^or a flux dip in a mixture composed of 4 parts of 
a saturated solution of sal-ammoniac in water and 1 part of 
hydrochloric acid, hot. Then dr}' the castings and dip them 
in the tin pot. The tin should be hot enough to quickly bring 
the castings to its own temperature when perfectly fluid, but not 
hot enough to quickly oxidize the surface of the tin. A sprink- 
ling of pulverized sal-ammoniac may be made on the surface 6f 
the tin or a little tallow or palm oil may be used to clear the 
surface and make the tinned work come out clear. Some 
operators again dip in a pot of hot palm oil or tallow at a tem- 
perature above that of the melted tin, for the purpose of drain- 
ing the excess of tin and imparting a smooth, bright surface to 



2 54 FOUNDRY IRONS. 

the castings. As soon as the tin on the castings has chilled or 
set they should be washed in hot sal-soda water and dried in 
sawdust. 

Breaking Up Cast Iron Ginis. — The Government recenth- 
sold a large number of old cannon, among the largest of which 
were some 15 -inch smooth-bore Dahlgrens cast in the early '6o's. 
The purchasers were confronted with the problem of convert- 
ing these heavy pieces of cast iron into marketable shape as scrap 
iron, wherein no single piece should exceed 200 pounds in 
weight. After doing considerable experimenting they adopted 
the method of drilling a row of holes longitudinally, afterwards 
driving steel wedges into these holes until the gun split open. 
To permit of the drilling being done as rapidly as possible the 
guns were jacked up on the roller bearings so that they could easih- 
be revolved, when a frame carrying 15 drills was set over the 
gun and i-inch holes drilled to a depth of about 7 inches. In 
this way the guns were split into suitable sections when the\- 
could easily be broken into smaller pieces. Each gun weighed 
42,000 pounds and had a thickness of metal varying from 17 
inches at the breach to 3 inches at the muzzle. Many of these 
guns had never been fired and these were found much more 
difficult to break up than those which had been in use. 

Blow-Holes in Alnminum Castings. — The repair of aluminum 
castings having large blow-holes, or which have been mis- 
run, is a comparatively easy operation when the burning-on 
process is practiced. In one large plant the castings are exam- 
ined for blow-holes or other apparent imperfections, before the 
cores are removed. In case of a large blow-hole, a cake core 
is used, having a hole cut in the center exactly the size of the 
hole in the casting. A flow-off is cut in one end of this core to 
carry off the metal, and while the aluminum is being poured 
from the ladle, the core is held firmh' in position on the casting, 
to prevent lifting. Before the metal in the core opening has 
set, the surplus aluminum is struck off to nearl}- the surface of 
the casting, which greatly improves the appearance of the job 
and reduces the amount of machining necessary. 



FOUNDRY NOTES. 255 

Hardening the Face of Castings. — A process for hardening 
the face of castings has been patented by Morgan A. Perrigo, 
of Wilkesbarre, Pa. Briefly described, the process consists in 
mixing pulverized sulphur with that part of the sand which will 
come in contact with the part of the casting it is desired to 
harden. The inventor claims that he can by this method pro- 
duce a face of greater density than the casting would otherwise 
have had. 

The Behavior of Cupola Bricks. — A brick which contains 60 
per cent, or more of silica expands on heating, but a brick con- 
taining 53 per cent, or less of silica contracts at temperatures 
above 3000 degrees Fahr. On this account, if a high-silica brick 
is used in lining a cupola, there should be a layer of sand be- 
tween the shell and the brick in order to make an elastic lining. 

Iron for Car Wheels. — At a recent meeting of the American 
Society for Testing Materials, Chas. B. Dudley recounted some 
of his experiences in car-wheel founding while connected with 
the Pennsylvania Railroad at Altoona, Pa. The attempts made 
to predict, from a chemical analysis, the amount of chill an iron 
would show have not proven successful, and the speaker stated 
that the chilling qualities of an iron were somewhat difficult to 
understand, as identical analyses will not produce a casting of 
like chill. At the Altoona shops the car-wheel mixture employed 
contains from 3.25 to 3.60 per cent, of total carbon, about 0.75 
per cent, silicon, 0.50 per cent, manganese, 0.50 percent, phos- 
phorus and 0.13 to 0.15 per cent, of sulphur., of which the limit 
was formerl)' 0.8 per cent. The total carbon is lowered to the 
desired point by the addition of from 5 to 10 per cent, of old 
steel rails. The depth of chill produced by this mixture is about 
I inch. 

Cupola Daubing. — For ordinary cupola work the daubing 
material used in mending the lining should contain from 20 to 
25 per cent, of silica sand and from 80 to 75 per cent, of fire-clay. 

Carborundum in the Cupola. — In lining an ordinary cupola 
the joints should be made as tight as practicable, the bricks 
being dipped in a thin clay wash before they are placed in posi- 



256 FOUNDRY IRONS. 

tion. The bricks or blocks should fit accurately, leaving the 
smallest possible space. After the lining is in place, the inside 
surface may be washed or daubed over with a solution made 
by adding from one to two pounds of finely ground carborun- 
dum to a pail of very thin clay wash, or the carborundum can 
be mixed with from <S to 10 per cent of water-glass, and then 
daubed on the inside of the cupola. The carborundum melts 
and forms a glaze or skin which closes the joints and protects 
the brickwork. 

Welding Cast Iro7i to Steel. — Coat the steel with silicate of 
soda, and before it is dry dust on dry, powdered ferro-man- 
ganese. The silicate will form a coat of glass over the clean 
surface of the steel, which is melted off by the molten iron. 
This keeps all air and moisture from the joint, and if no oxygen 
can reach the steel there can be no rust. If the surfaces are 
bright and the iron hot there will be an absolute union. One 
inch steel bars, with the ends bedded in cast iron in this man- 
ner were tested, and broke off, but did not pull out. 

Welding Cast Iron. — One of the English papers reports the 
welding of cast iron by the use of a flux consisting of 65 per 
cent potassium chloride, 15 per cent chloride of lithium, and 
20 per cent potassium fluoride. 

The surfaces to be joined are first heated, sprinkled with the 
flux, and then heated to the melting point, presumably with the 
aid of a blowpipe. A rod of the same composition of the iron 
is used to solder up any space that may require it. 

In this country practically the same work has been done by 
the autogenous welding process without the use of an}' flux. 

Punched Castings. — The publication of a series of punched 
cast-iron plates from iron made by the Thomas Iron Company 
of Hokendauqua, has brought out a similar piece of work, for 
which we are indebted to Edwin C. Will, foundry foreman of 
Russell & Co., Massillon, Ohio. The castings were made from 
coke iron melted with coke and cast in green sand molds in a 
horizontal position, the iron being the same grade always used 
by the firm in tiuestion in making their engines, harvesting 



FOUNDRY NOTES. 257 

machiner)' and saw mills. No alloys of any kind were used, 
nor were the castings annealed in any way. The punching was 
done on the regular machine without a crack or break. The 
plates had no supports about the edges and have not been 
altered or changed since they were punched. The plate, No. 
4, was Sg inch thick, while No. 1 1 was }^ inch thick, and No. 
14 y^ inch thick. Nos. 7, 9, 10 and 12 were punchings from 
these cast-iron plates, 3 inches in diameter. Some of these 
punchings were ^ inch from the edges of the plates, and since 
then other plates have been punched as close as % and yk inch 
from the edge without a crack or break. Nos. 3 and 8 were 
full-length cuts 2 inches wide and 16 inches long from the hub 
of a pulley without a break. Nos. 5 and 6 are test bars broken 
on a Riehle testing machine, showing 30,000 pounds per square 
inch tensile strength. 

Pickling Castings. — For pickling iron castings, the strength 
of the solution is generally i part sulphuric acid to 10 parts 
w^ater, and the castings are left in the dip for several hours, or 
in some cases, over night, but for large castings, or where the 
capacity of the dipping tank is not sufificient to accommodate 
the work, the solution may be stronger and in the proportion of 
one part sulphuric acid to 4 parts water. The castings are 
merely immersed in the pickle, and are then laid aside for eight 
or twelve hours, or until covered with a white powder}^ deposit, 
when they are rinsed in hot water. When the scale is so firmly 
attached that one treatment is not sufficient to remove it, the 
operation can be repeated until the desired effect is produced. 

Mr. J. L. Eckelt describes his method of using acid water for 
pickling castings, in place of using the scratch brush. The plan 
is to have stone tables covered with sheet lead, pump the acid 
water into an overhead tank, from which it descends upon the 
castings in the form of a fine spray, this also taking place from 
several sides so that all portions of the work are covered. The 
surplus acid-water collects into a sunken vat to be pumped up 
again. After the castings have been sufficiently acted upon, 
the}^ are left stand, say 48 hours, or as long as it may be neces- 
17 



258 FOUNDRY IRONS. 

sary, until the sand comes off easily when the work is washed 
with clear water. After thorough rinsing the castings are re- 
moved and left stand a further two days in the air, when they 
will be coated with an even layer of brown. In this country we 
would hate to give the castings all this time, unless the foundry 
is way ahead of the machine shop. The advantages claimed 
are in labor saving, tools, clean and smooth surfaces, and no 
breakage. Figures are further given to show the economy of 
the process, which indicate G'j per cent, benefit over hand clean- 
ing. Our conditions and prices would, however, require the 
figures given to be taken with due allowances. The process is, 
unfortunately, not compared with the tumbling barrel. 
Mixture for Sand Match. — 

Parts. 

Finely sifted gangway sand 89 

Finely sifted steel or iron borings i 

Pulverized litharge 3 

Boiled linseed oil 7 

Mix the sand, borings and litharge when dry, taking care to 
keep out all molding sand, gravel or water, and after thoroughly 
mixing add 7 parts boiled linseed oil, and mix to the temper of 
molding sand. This is rammed hard into the cope match and a 
bottom board is bedded-on, and afterwards firmly secured by 
screws in preference to nails. A match made in this manner 
will last for years, outlasting plaster of paris matches. 

Steel or Iron — How Browned. — In order to give iron or steel 
a brown tint and render them moisture-proof, dissolve two parts 
of crystallized iron chloride, two parts of antimony chloride (as 
slightly acid as possible), and one part of gallic acid in four 
parts of water; apply the solution to the article with a sponge 
or cloth, and dry it in the air; repeat this until you obtain the 
desired shade of brown ; then wash the article with water ; dr}- 
it, and finally rub it over with boiled linseed oil. 

Process for Tinning Cast Iron. — M. Bertrand has used sul- 
phophenolic acid to obtain tinning on iron. He dissolves salts 
of tin in a mixture of water and sulphophenolic acid at the 



FOUNDRY NOTES. 259 

rate of I per cent, of tin salt and 5 per cent, of sulphophenolic 
acid. In this mixture the article, which is previously cleaned, is 
dipped, and is at once covered with an adherent coating of tin, 
and afterward, by the means of rotating brushes in wire and 
cloth, the coating of tin is polished, and a result obtained which 
is both effective and cheap. 

Coppering Iron Castings. — The following information on the 
subject is from " Brannt's Metal Workers' Handy Book": To 
provide cast-iron articles with a beautiful and durable coating of 
copper proceed as follows: Scour the article with a pickle con- 
sisting of 50 parts of hydrochloric acid of 15 degrees B. and i 
part of nitrate of copper. Then rub them with a woolen rag or 
a soft brush dipped in a solution of 10 parts of nitrate of copper 
and a like quantity of cupric chloride in 80 parts of nitric acid 
of 15 degrees B. After a few seconds rinse the articles in clean 
water and polish them with a dry woolen rag. This rubbing and 
subsequent polishing is repeated until the layer of copper is of 
the desired thickness. In this manner ground or rough objects 
can be entirely or partially coppered, the process being recom- 
mendable on account of its simplicity, cheapness, and the dura- 
bility of the coppering. To give articles thus coppered the ap- 
pearance of antique bronze, touch them up with a solution of 4 
parts sal-ammoniac, i part oxalic acid and i part of acetic acid 
in 30 parts of water, the operation being repeated until the object 
has acquired the desired color. 

Cleaning Foundry Windows. — A handful of oxalic acid to a 
pail of water. An important feature of the cleaning is to go 
over the glass with a woolen rag or soft skin and give it a polish, 
which will prevent dust collecting as quickly as it otherwise 
would. Glass cleaned and polished in this way will stay clean 
for a longer time than if left unpolished. 

I have used dilute sulphuric acid followed by a scouring with 
a mixture of fine sand and soft soap for cleaning foundry win- 
dows. I have seen very rusty and dirty window^s made quite 
presentable in this way. While I do not consider this a positive 
success I know no process which is better. 



26o FOUNDRY IRONS. 

The windows of a foundry may be cleaned quickly and per- 
fectly by using parting sand (sand that is brushed off the cast- 
ings) mixed with a weak solution of sulphuric acid and water. 
Brush this on the glass and allow it to remain for a few minutes, 
then finish with more of the same mixture. I have used this 
method of removing the oxide of iron and emery from the 
windows of the polishing room and foundry for years with suc- 
cess. The acid softens the iron, which is removed by the fric- 
tion of the sand. 

Compressed air is used to clean foundry windows, when they 
are not coated with oxide of iron, the air alone doing the work; 
when heavily coated with oxide, the sand blast removes it. Be- 
fore using this method of cleaning be sure the glass is securely 
fastened in the sash. 

Silvery Iron. — An important change has been made in the 
sliding scale of prices of silvery pig iron by the Jackson County, 
O., blast furnaces. There will be an advance in price hereafter 
with every one-h&lf of i per cent, of the silicon content. Up 
to and including lO per cent, silicon the difference will be 25 
cents per ton, and above 10 per cent., 50 cents per ton for each 
one-half of i per cent, silicon content. To illustrate this more 
clearly and give the range of silicon content to be understood 
in contracts, the following table is presented, which is based on 
the present market price of $18.50 furnace for 8 per cent, 
silicon : 

Silicon will range 
Per cent. per cent. Price. 

4 3-75 to 425 ^16.50 

4)^ 4-2Sto 4.75 16.75 

5 4.75 to 5.25 17.00 

S% 5-25 to 5.75 17.25 

6 5-75 to 6.25 17.50 

6>^ 6.25 to 6.75 17.75 

7 6.75 to 7.25 18.00 

1% 7-25to 7.75 18.25 

8 7-75 to 8.25 , 18.50 

8>^ 8.25 to 8.75 18.75 

9 8.7510 9.25 19.00 



FOUNDRY NOTES. 



261 



Per cent. 

10 .. 

II 

ii>^.. 
12 . . 



Silicon will range 

per cent. 
. 9.25 to 9.75.. 
. 9.75 to 10.25.. 
. 10.25 *° "o-TS* • 
. 10.75 to 11.25.. 
. 11.25 to 1 1.75' • 
. 11.75 to 12.35.. 



Price. 
19.25 

19-50 
20.00 
20.50 

2 1. CO 

21.50 



Melting Points of Cast Irons. 





Com- 


Melting 


bined 


point. 


carbon. 


deg. 


Per 


Fahr. 


cent. 


2,030 


3-98 


2,100 


3-52 


2,140 


2.27 


2,170 


1-93 


2,200 


1.69 


2,210 


1.48 


2,230 


1. 12 


2,210 


0.84 


2,250 


0.80 


2,280 


0.13 


2,350 


1.32 


2,210 


6.48 


2,255 


5.02 


2,190 


3.38 


2,040 


1.82 


2,400 


6.80 


2,280 


" 



Graphitic 




carbon. 


Silicon. 


Per 


Per 


cent. 


cent. 


.... 


0.14 



Man- 
ganese. 
Per 
cent. 



0.54 
1.80 
1.69 
2.40 
2.30 
2.66 

3-07 I 
3-i6 

343 I 

(carbon) 
(carbon) 

0.37 

0.47 

(carbon) 



O.IO 

0.20 
1. 10 
0.16 

0.49 

1-39 
0.24 
0.47 
0.50 
0.90 
0.49 

44-59 

81.40 

16.98 

1-38 

(chromium 62.70) 
(tungsten 39.02) 



0.47 

0.45 
0.52 
1.81 
1. 41 

I-I3 

2-58 
1.29 
2.40 
0,21 
0.14 

1-65 
12.30 
12.01 



Phos- 




phorus. 


Sulphur. 


Per 


Per 


cent. 


cent. 


0.22 


0.037 


0.20 


0.036 


1.46 


0.032 


0.76 


0.036 


1.60 


0.060 


0.17 


0.033 


0.089 


0.027 ' 


2.12 


0.051 


0.22 


0.020 


! 0.08 


0.032 


7 


7 


? 


? 


? 


7 


7 


? 


? 


7 



Pig iron. 

Pig iron. 

Pig iron. 

Pig iron. 

Pig iron. 

Pig iron. 

Pig iron. 

Pig iron. 

Pig iron. 

Pig iron. 

Steel. 

Ferro-manganese. 

Ferro-manganese. 

Silico-spiegel. 

Ferro-silicon. 

Ferro-chrome. 

Ferro-tungsten. 



Method of Selling Castings. — It has long been the practice 
of iron-founders to sell their castings by the pound. This sys- 
tem has its advantages and disadvantages, for, while it enables 
the founder to obtain pay for every pound of iron in his cast- 
ings, and to determine at the end of each month or year the 
exact weight of castings produced and cost per pound for iron, 
labor, etc., in producing them, it also subjects him to the de- 
mands of his customers for a reduction in the price of castings 
when that of pig iron goes down, and a dispute with probable 
loss of customers to get prices up, when pig iron advances, 
and the profits on his outputs of castings being in this way 



262 FOUNDRY IRONS. 

limited. F'or it enables the regular consumer of castings, who 
always watches the price of pig iron, to at once point out the 
difference between the price of pig iron per pound and castings 
per pound, and assert that he is being overcharged by the 
founder. Now there is no more reason why the price of cast- 
ings should be based upon the price of pig iron, than that of a 
piece of furniture upon the price of lumber consumed in mak-* 
ing it, or that of a packing box on the cost of the few boards 
used in its construction, and no purchaser of these articles ever 
thinks of objecting to the price, for the reason that that of lum- 
ber has gone down. It is not the cost of raw material con- 
sumed in producing an article that determines its value, but the 
cost of skilled labor required in manufacturing it. A piece of 
furniture may be worth double the price of another piece made 
from lumber of the same price or grade. The cost for labor in 
making a complicated piece of core work may be three or four 
times greater than that of a plain piece cast from the same 
ladle of iron. It is therefore absurd, to base the price of cast- 
ings upon. the price of pig iron or scrap. 

The price per pound system was probably adopted before 
there was any means of determining the weight of a casting 
from a wood pattern. But this difificulty has been overcome, 
and we now have not only the weight of iron per square inch 
of pattern, but also tables giving the weights of castings cast 
from patterns made of various kinds of wood per pound of wood 
in them which give accurately the weights of castings when 
properly molded and poured, so that the weight of a casting 
may be accurately determined from the wood pattern before 
casting. This being the case there is no reason why castings 
should not be sold by the piece at a price based upon the cost 
of labor required to produce them in place of per pound based 
upon the price of pig iron, and a better price be thus obtained. 

I have recently met anumber of founders who have adopted 
the piece price system, as far as possible with their competitors 
.selling by the pound. In Indiana a founder was making a small 
arrow-head casting for decorating graves, for which he received 



FOUNDRY NOTES. 263 

twenty-five cents a piece, this price netting him about fifteen 
cents per pound. A Hartford, Conn, founder making automo- 
bile cyHnders by the piece, reahzed thirty cents per pound for 
the casting, and at a Baltimore, Md. foundry, I was shown a 
small propeller wheel sold at a price that netted the founder 
forty cents per pound. Had the buyer of the castings been 
asked any such price for a pound of cast iron, even if he knew 
nothing about the price of pig iron per ton, he would no doubt 
have objected to it, but when asked a given price he paid it the 
same as he would have done for any other manufactured article, 
and was satisfied with it. 

But the piece price cannot be adopted by a founder at an 
advance price for anything but a speciality so long as his com- 
petitors are selling by the pound. To illustrate this; I recently 
met a founder in a Massachusetts town who had an order for 
two small propeller wheels weighing three and a half pounds 
each, to be made from a brass wheel taken from a motor boat. 
The price charged for these wheels was five cents per pound or 
thirty-five cents for the two wheels. This was not sufficient to 
pay for the core box, and placing of a core print on the pattern. 
When the founder's attention was called to this, he said five 
cents was the price for light castings in the town, and he could 
not charge any more, but he would make it up on work done on 
the wheel in the machine shop. This may have been all right, 
but I failed to see why a machine shop should be made to pay 
for running a foundr}-. While the piece price would no doubt 
advance that of castings, this would in many cases be an advan- 
tage to the consumer especially in the heavier class of machine 
castings, as it would result in a better grade of castings being 
made. For with the pound price, every pound of iron that goes 
into a casting increases the founder's profits and he is not at all 
interested in keeping the casting down to vv^eight, and castings 
are frequently swelled and strained by soft ramming and im- 
proper pouring. 

The consumer is thus required to pay for increased weight 
and if the casting is to be finished on the lathe or planer an ad- 



264 FOUNDRY IRONS. 

ditional cost is incurred for removing the excessive weight. 
The result is, that a consumer never knows what a casting cost 
until it is weighed and delivered, and the expense of finishing is 
always an uncertain factor until the work is done, so that he can 
never know what a machine cost until it is actually finished. 

With a piece-priced system, every pound of swell and strain 
would be a loss to the founder, and he would be interested in 
keeping castings down to weight and making more perfect 
castings. 

Contract Castings. — Foundrymen frequently enter into a con- 
tract or agreement to make at a given price, whether plain or 
core work, all the castings for a machine shop or other con- 
sumer of castings. This price is always below that of core work 
and above that of plain work, and the founder figures on making 
up his loss on the core work from the profits on the plain work, 
and thus realize a profit on the contract. ' This theory figures 
out very well when the plain and core work are of proper pro- 
portions, a profit being then realized on the contract. But the 
buyer of the castings frequently discovers that he is paying more 
for his plain castings than he can get them for at other foundries, 
and sends all of the heavier pieces of the plain castings to the 
other foundry at a lower price leaving only the core and light 
plain castings to be made on his contract. In this way the con- 
tracting founder frequently finds himself making castings at a 
loss and is compelled to throw up the contract. 

As it is an easy matter for the contractor or machine shop to 
shift the responsibility for this kind of work onto their customers 
and the founder has no redress for violation of contract and, if 
he has a written contract to make all their castings at a certain 
price per pound, may find himself making them at a heavy loss 
and bound to continue to do so. 

With a piece price it would not make an}- difference to the 
founder whether he got the plain or core work at a price based 
upon the cost of labor etc. for producing it. 

Unfair Practice. — -Another bad and unfair practice is that of 
founders with machine shops selling castings below cost of pro- 



FOUNbRY NOtiiS. 26^ 

duction and depending upon making up the loss by overcharge 
for work done on them in their machine shop. This practice 
is not only unfair to foundries having no machine shops, but also 
to both the machine shop and the foundry of the concern where 
it is carried on. For the machine shop soon gets the name of a 
high-priced place, and the foundry is required to make castings 
that are to be machined at another plant where no loss has to 
be made up on them and the work can be done cheaper, at as 
low a price as those that are to be finished in its own machine 
shop. 

Every plant should be run on a paying basis and the man 
who undertakes to make a machine shop pay the running ex- 
penses of a foundry will soon find that neither plant pays. 
The piece price may readily be adopted by foundries making 
a specialty of duplicate castings, as it is only necessary to count 
the castings in place of weighing them, and such castings are 
now sold by the piece by many founders. For other work no 
more labor is required to figure a piece price than a pound price, 
for only the same elements or items have to be considered in 
determining the cost per piece as per pound. In the opinion 
of the writer, the foundry industry can be greatly improved by 
the universal adoption of a piece-price system of selling all kinds 
of castings. 

Cleanmg Castings. — Not so many years ago castings were 
made in green sand without facing or blacking, cleaned with an 
old file or shovel, and shipped from the foundry with a heavy 
coating of sand upon them. But now almost every mold has to 
be faced, black-leaded and skin-dried to prevent sand burning 
onto the castings, and to remove any sand that may adhere to 
them ; we have the acid bath, steel wire brush, improved 
tumbling barrels of all sizes and shapes and, last but not least, 
the sand blast, which is capable of not only removing the sand, 
but also of cutting away the iron of the casting, and we find even 
sash weights polished in the tumbling barrels before they are 
shipped from the foundry. 

It is very nice to be able to send out fine-looking castings, but 



266 FOUNDRY IRONS. 

it is not always to the interest of the founder or purchaser to do 
so, for there are many Hnes of castings upon which a coating of 
sand burned upon the iron in casting is a greater protection than 
any paint or protective material that can be put upon them. 
The advantage of sand protection may be seen in sash weights 
that have been polished and those with a coating of sand upon 
them, the former when placed in use. in a damp wall soon be- 
coming heavily coated with rust and eaten away by it, while the 
latter remain as good as new for years under the same condi- 
tion. In castings placed in the ground the sand-coating protec- 
tion may be seen to a still greater extent, and in Chicago, at the 
present time, all castings of man-holes, sewer inlets, etc., are used 
with only the loose sand brushed from the exposed surface. 
From the part of the casting placed in the ground the sand is 
not even brushed, and no facing is used. These castings have 
been found to last much longer than when cleaned and painted 
with coal tar. Water and gas pipes last much longer when pro- 
tected by the sand burned on them in the foundry than when the 
mold is faced or blackened and the casting painted, and there 
are many more castings, such as foundation plates, grate-bars, 
etc., upon which much money could be saved for facing and 
cleaning and a more durable casting turned out. 

This is a matter that should be looked into by every foundry- 
man, for in late years the foundry industry has been very much 
injured by the adoption of steel, both rolled and cast, for pur- 
poses for which cast iron was formerly used. That the lasting 
properties of cast iron are superior to those of steel for many 
purposes is rapidly being proven, and the founder should take 
every advantage of these developments to improve the foundry 
industry and regain its lost prestige. 



NDEX. 



ACID-resisting castings, 137 
Agricultural machinerv castings, 
137 
Air cylinders, 137 

-furnace for melting malleabies, 
233, 234 
iron and semi-steel, 220 
superiority of the cupola 
over, 249 
Alabama coke, 12, 13 
All Mine pig iron, 159 
Alloys, pig iron and coke, grading 

of, 153-167 
Aluminum and cast iron, 117, 118 

castings, blow holes in, 254 
American charcoal irons, 160, 161 

foundry and forge iron by analy- 
sis, 156, 157 
Foundrymen's Association, report 
on chemical 
standards for 
iron castings 
made to, 134- 
167 
second series of 

tests, 189-199 

standard speci- 

. fications f o r 

foundry p i g 

iron, 128-131 

Scotch pig, 30 

Society for Testing Materials, 
analysis for foundry irons as a 
standard adopted by, 125 
Analyses, comparative, of Bessemer 

iron, 169 

charco a 1 

iron, 169 

foun dry 

iron, 168 

of coke, 10-19 

standard, of the various grades of 
foundry and steel-making 
irons, ferro-alloys and melting 
fuels, 153-167 
Analysis, American foundry and forge 
iron by, 156, 157 
and foundry chemists, 168, 177 

(267) 



Analysis and sampling, 129, 130 

as a standard for foundry irons, 

125 
blast furnace, 171, 172 
cost of, 172, 173 
grading iron by, 125-133 
inaccuracy of, 168 
of castings, 131, 132 
samples for, 126 
sampling for, 157, 158 
Annealing boxes, 237, 238 

pots and pans, 137 
cast iron, 247 
indications of, 235 
malleabies, 235-243 
ovens, 236-237 
pots, anal)'sis of, 132 
scale, use of borings for, 59 
time required for, 241, 242 
Anthracite coal, discovery of, 7 
coke iron, 7 
foundry pig, silicon in grades of, 

96 
iron, 7, 25, 26 
crystals in, 36 
Antimony, effect of, on cast iron, 119, 

120 
Armor- plate, use of nickel in making, 

119 
Automobile castings, 137 

cylinder packing rings, 86, 87 
cylinders, 138 

analysis of, 131 
French, 124 
fly-wheels, 138 



BADEN, Louis, process of melting 
turnings and borings, reported 
by, 52 
Balls for ball mills, 138 
Base or quoting price for pig iron, 130 

table, 130, 131 
Basic iron, 152, 155 
Bed plate, 138 

Bedstead joints, analysis of, 131 
Bench work, silicon in mixtures for, 96 
Bertrand's process for tinning cast 
iron, 258, 259 



268 



INDEX. 



Bessemer ferro-silicon, 165, 166 
iron, 152 

comparative analysis of, 169 
malleable, 154 
standard, 153, 154 
Binders, 138 
Bituminous iron, 7 
Black band, 3 
Blast, drying the, 112 

furnace analysis, 171, 172 

location of, in early days, 4 
furnaces, 6-8 

locations of, 7, 8 
hot, 112 

oxidizing action of, 49 
Blow holes, causes of, 248 

in aluminum castings, 254 
Blowers and fans, 141 
Boiler castings, 139 
Borings, cast iron, briquetting of, 53 
melting of, 48-51 
Keep's method of melting, 57, 58 
melting of, in the cupola, 55-57 
new methods of melting, 52 
use of, for annealing scale, 59 
wrought iron and steel, melting 
of, 51, 52 
Boyden, Seth, award of medal to, 
227, 228 
malleable iron founding 

started by, 227 
monument of, 228 
Brake shoes, 139 
Briquetting cast iron borings, 53 

iron and metal turnings and 
chips, German method of, 53- 
55 
Bronze, effect of, on cast iron, 119, 

120 
Brown hematite, 3 
Burned cast iron, 39 
iron, crystals in, 37 

loss in melting, 71, 72 
scrap, 38, 39 

CANNON cast at Fort Pitt Works, 
21 
Carbon, absorption of, by iron, in 
smelting, 102 
effect of, in the manufacture of 
steel, 101 
on the structure of iron, 
103 
in iron, 101-104 
increase in the bulk of iron by, 

104 
real softener and hardener of 
cast iron, 104 



Carbonates of iron, 3 

Carborundum in the cupola, 255, 256 

Car wheel mixture, 132 

scrap, 41 
Car wheels, chilled, 139 

effect of titanium on, 115 
iron for, 255 
unchilled, 139 
Cast iron, adding strength to, 186, 187 
and aluminum, 117, 118 
annealing of, 247 
best results in melting, 250 
borings, briquetting of, 53 
burned, 39 
carbon the real softener and 

hardener of, 104 
cause of hardness of, by 

chilling, 103 
cutting tools, chilled, 140 
decrease in value of, by rust, 

81 
effect of manganese on, 106- 
108 
oxygen on, 113 
silicon on, 95, 96 
steel on, 205 
various metals on, 
119, 120 
guns, breaking up of, 254 
malleables, theories of pro- 
cess of, 239 
strength of, 185, 186 
strengthening of, by steel, 
215, 216 
by wrought 
iron, 44, 
45 
strongest part of, 185 
superiority of, to steel, for 

many purposes, 93, 94 
temper in, 85, 86 
testing of, 179-188 
tinning of, 253, 254, 258, 259 
turnings and borings, melt- 
ing of, 48-51 
vanadium in, 124 
welding of, 256 
irons, melting points of, 261 
scrap iron, 40 
Casting by direct process, 78-87 
semi-steel, results in, 218, 219 
test bars, 183, 184, 200-203 
Castings, analysis of, 131, 132 

and malleables, cleaning of, 242 
cause of hard spots in, 250 
chemical standards for, 134-167 
cleaning of, 265, 266 
contract, 264 



INDEX. 



269 



Castings, coppering of, 259 

distribution of silicon through- 
out, 27, 28 
early production of, 4 
hard, softening of, 247 
hardening the face of, 255 
heavy, change of structure in, 

185 
in the early days of founding, 78 
light, transverse strength for, 249 
malleable, cost of producing, 245 
methods of selling, 261-264 
pickling of, 257, 258 
prevention of shrinkage holes in, 

250 
punched, 256, 257 
sand protection of, 2H6 
underground, protection of, 266 
uneven shrinkage in, 250 
■white iron, shrinkage of, 234 
Charcoal and coke iron, 7 
iron, cold blast, fi 

comparative analyses of, 169 
hot Ijlast, 7 

use of, for mixtures, 97 
irons, 20-23 

American, 160. 161 
pig, crystals in, 37 
grading of, 97 
silicon in, 97 
Chemical standards for iron castings, 

134-167 
Chemistry, foundry. 88-94 
Chill rolls, anahsis of, 182 
Chilled cast-iron cutting tools, 140 
castings, 139 

for grinding machinery, 143 
pig, 31,32 
test, 182 
Chills, 140 

for foundry use, analysis of, 132 
Chips, briquetting of, 53-55 
Classification of pig iron, 20 
Clay daubing, 252 
Cleaning castings, 265, 266 
Coal used in the manufacture of 

coke, 12 
Coke, alloys and pig iron, grading 
of, 153-167 
analyses of, 16-19 
classes of, 161, 162 
coal used in the manufacture of, 

12 
districts of the United States, 11- 

16 
foundry, desirable composition 
for, 16 
pig, silicon in grades of, 96 



Coke furnaces, 8 

industry, report on, 11-16 
iron, 7, 23-25 
crystals in, 36 
for malleables, 231, 232 
-smelted iron, characteristics of, 

10 
value of a standard composition 

of, 16 
waste, use of, 252, 253 
Coking process, improvement in, 9 
Cold-blast charcoal iron, 20-2-2, 160 

iron, 6, 7 
Collars and couplings for shafting, 

1-10 
Collecting shot iron, methods of, 46- 

48 
Colorado coke, 13 

Connellsville coke, analysis of, 10, 11 
Contract castings, 264 
Copper, effect of, on cast iron, 119, 

120 
Coppering iron castings, 259 
Core compound, 251, 252 
Corliss cvlinder, semi-steel mixture 

for, 211'. 212 
Cornwall ores, 3 
Cotton machinery, 146 
Crushed coke, 162 
Crusher jaws, 140, 249 
Crushing test, 181 
Cupola bricks, behavior of, 255 
calculating mixtures for, 132 
carborundum in, 255, 256 
daubing, 255 
drying blast for, 113 
effect of melting steel with iron 

in, 206-209 
for melting malleables, 233, 234 
heat in 249 
invention of, 78 
loss of iron in, 249 
means for effecting change in the 

quality of iron in, 93 
melting borings and turnings in, 
55-57 
semi steel in, 206 
mixing materials for semi-steel 

in, 218 
superiority of, over an air fur- 
nace, 249 
use of steel scrap in, 216-219 
Cutting tools, chilled cast iron, 140 
Cylinder bushing, locomotive, 140 
Cylinders, 140 

hydraulic, 144 

jacketed, semi-steel mixture for, 
211 



70 



INDEX. 



Cylinders, locomotive, 145 I 

small, analysis of, 132 | 

semi-steel mixtures for, li25 
steam, 149, 150 

DIAMOND polishing wheels, 140 
Dies for drop hammers, 140 
Diller, H. E.. on semi-steel, 206-209 
Direct process, casting by, 78-87 
Directory of pig iron brands, 151, 152 
Drop hammers, dies for, 140 

weights, 249 
Dudley, Chas. B., on iron for car 

wheels, 255 
Dynamo and motor frames, bases and 
spiders, 140, 141 
frame iron, tests of, 189-199 

ECCENTRIC straps, 141 
Eckfelt, J. L., on pickling cast- 
ings, 257, 258 
Electric castings, 141 
Elements and metalloids, 95-114 

symbols for, 127 
Engine frames, 141 
English foundr}' iron, 159 

pig irons, ordinary, 159 
Europe, output of malleables in, 227 

FANS and blowers, 141 
Farm implements, 141 
Ferro- alloys, 162-167 
-aluminum, 162 

-carbon and semi-steel, 217, 218 
-chrome, 163 
-manganese, 158, 163 

and manganese in a ladle, 
108, 109 
-molybdenum, 163, 164 
-nickel, 164 
-phosphorus, 164 
-silicon as a softener in ladles, 100 
Bessemer, 165, 166 
iron, silicon in, 96 
-sodium, 166 
-titanium, 11(1, 111, 166, 167 

cost of, 117 
-tungsten, 167 
-vanadium, 122, 123, 167 
cost of, 123 
Fire pots. 141 
Fly wheels, 141 
Flux, silicon as a, 99, 100 
Foreign iron, 158-160 
Forge iron, 152, 155 
Fort Pitt Works, cannon cast at, 21 
Founders, failures of, in making 
semi-steel, 221 



Founders, trick of, 23 

unfair practice of, 264, 265 
Founding, iron and steel, 214, 215 
Foundry and forge iron, American, 
by analysis, 156, 157 
chemist, 174-176 
chemistry, 88-94 

failure of, to improve the 
quality of foundry iron, 8 
chemists and analysis, 168-177 
coke. 161 

desirable composition for, 16 
iron, 152, 155 

classification of grades of, 152, 

153 
comparative analyses of, 168 
English, 159 
improvement of, 8-10 
safe proportion of silicon in, 27 
uncertainty in the quality of, 5 
irons, analysis as a standard for, 
125 
fracture indications in, 35-37 
history and sources of, 1-19 
kish in, 104-106 
non-productive labor in a, 252 
notes, 246-266 
pig iron, standard specifications 

for, 125-131 
test, standard, 181, 182 
windows, cleaning of, 259, 260 
work, content of silicon in pig 
irons for, 28 
Fracture grading of pig iron, 33-37 

pig and scrap irons, 20- 
39 
indications in foundry irons, 35- 
37 
scrap iron, 37 
iron graded bv, 155, 156 
test, 180 
French automobile cylinders, 124 
Friction clutches, 142 
Furnace castings, 142 
coke, 161 

hot or cold working, 33 
Furnaces, 92, 93 

for anthracite iron, location of, 25 
melting, for malleables, 232-234 

GAS engine cylinders, 142 
pipes, wear of, 266 
Gasoline engine cylinders, semi-steel 

mixtures for, 223-225 
Gear wheels, 249 

analysis of, 131 
Gears, 142 

semi- steel, 226 



INDEX. 



271 



Georgia coke, 13 

German method of briquetting iron 
and metal turnings and chips, 53- 

Grading charcoal irons, 20 
coke iron, 24 
iron by analysis, 125-133 
pig and scrap irons, 20-39 

iron, alloys and coke, 153-167 
Grate bars, 38, 39 

iron for, 251 
Grinding machinery, chilled castings 

for, 143 
Gun carriages, 143 

iron, 143 
Guns, cast iron, breaking up of, 254 

HANGERS for shafting, 143 
Hard castings, softening of, 247 
spots in castings, cause of, 250 
sandwiched, 82-84 
Hardening iron with sulphur, Hi, 112 
Hardware castings, light, 143 
Heat, oxidation of iron b}-, 81, 82 

-resisting iron, 143 
Hematite iron, 158 

red. 240 
High silicon iron, 26-29, 158 
Hinges and locks, 145 
Historical data of foundry- chemistry, 

88-90 
History and sources of foundry irons, 

1-19 
Hollow ware; 144 
Hood, H., on the hoodoo in pig iron, 

176-178 
Hot blast charcoal iron, 22, 23 

best known 
brands of, 
23 
iron, 0, 7 
Housings for rolling mills, 144 
Hydraulic cylinders, 144 
Hydrogen in iron, 114 

ILLINOIS coke, 13 

1 Steel Co., use of vanadium by, 

122 
Impact test, 180, 181 
Ingot molds and tools, 144 
Iron, 1, 2 

absorption of carbon by, in smelt- 
ing, 102 
affinity of, for phosphorus, 109 
analysis of. 5, 6 
and manganese, 106-108 

metal turnings, briquetting 
of, 53-55 



Iron and other metals, 115-124 
steel founding, 214, 215 
anthracite, 25, 26 
average analysis of, to be charged, 

132 
basic, 152, 155 
Bessemer, 152 
burned, crystals in, 37 

experiments in melting, with 

vanadium, 121 
loss in melting, 71, 72 
carbon in, 101-104 
carbonates of, 3 

castings, chemical standard for, 
134-167 
coppering of, 259 
coke. 23-25 
cold blast, 6, 7 
compounds of, 2 
derivation of supply of, 2, 3, 102 
discoveries of sources of, 1, 2 
early knowledge of, 1 

melting of. for malleables, 229 
effect of carbon on the structure 
of, 103 
phosphorus on, 109, 110 
silicon on, 9, 10, 27 
sulphur on, 9 
vanadium on, 123 
for car wheels, 255 

malleables. 230, 231 
foreign, 158-160 
forge, 152, 155 * 

foundry, 152, 155 

classification of grades of, 
152, 153 
graded by fracture, 155, 156 
grading of, by analysis, 125-133 
hardening of, with sulphur. 111, 

112 
heat resisting, 143 
hematite, 158 
high silicon, 26-29 
hot blast, 6, 7 
how browned, 258 
hydrogen in, 114 
increase in the bulk of, by car- 
bon, 104 
loss and gain in melting, 68-77 
of, in a cupola, 249 
melting, 68, 69 
low phosphorus, 154 

silicon, chill of, 247 
malleable, 227-234 
means for effecting change in the 

quality of, in the cupola, 93 
melting, determining actual loss 
in, 76, 77 



2/2 



INDEX. 



Iron, metals untried in, 120 
Middlesboro, 159 
mixtures of, 60, 61 
mottled, 155 
Mountain ores, 8 
nickel in, 119 
nitrogen in, 114 
open hearth basic, 159 
ores, 2-4 

analysis of, 5 

content of iron in, 3 

mixing of, 4-6 

supply of, o 
oxidation of, by heat, 81, 82 
oxidized, 80-82 
oxygen in, 112-114 
phosphorus in, 109-110 
pyrites, 3 
remelt, 64 
silver gray, 26 
sulphide, 110 
sulphur in, 110-112 
titanium in, 115-117 
white, 155 
Irons, American charcoal, 160 
cliarcoal, 20-23 
commercial, 1 
designation of, 6, 7 
high silicon, 158 
mixing of, 60-67 
scrap, 40-59 
silvery, 158 

KEBLER, Eliot A., grading of pig 
iron, ferro-alloys and coke, pre- 
pared by, 153-167 
Keep, W. J., method of melting bor- 
ings of, 57, 58 
testing machines made 
by. 188 
Kentucky coke, 14 
Kish, 29, 30, 79, 104-106 

I ABORATORIES, testing, 173 
Lv Ladle flux, 247 
Lake Superior charcoal irons. Kil 

ores, 3 
Lead, effect of, on cast iron, 119, 120 
Loam sand, 252 
Locks and hinges, 145 
Locomotive castings, 144 
cylinder bushing, 140 

mixtures, ()4, 65 
cylinders, 145 
Loss and gain of iron in melting, 68- 

77 
Low phosphorus iron, 154 



MCCLAIN, DAVID, on. Is semi- 
steel a misnomer ? 222, 223 
McGahey, C. R., on use of steel scrap 
in the cupola, production of semi- 
steel castings, etc., 216-219 
Machine tool castings, 146 
Machinery castings, 145, 146 

silicon in mixtures 
for, 96 
mixtures, 62 
scrap, 40, 41 
loss in melting, 69 
Magnetic ores, 3 
Malleable Bessemer, 154 

cast iron, theories of process of, 

239 
castings, cost of producing, 245 
iron, 227-234 

castings, analysis of, 132 

history of, 227-23(» 

making of, as a business, 

244-24(5 
plants in the United States, 

246 
production of, 244-246 
tensile strength of, 242 
transverse strength of, 242 
scrap, 43, 44, 232 

iron produced from, 247 
Malleables and castings, cleaning of, 
242 
annealing of, 235-243 
ovens for, 235-237 
coke iron for, 231-232 
early melting of iron for, 229 
iron for, 230, 231 
melting furnaces for, 232-234 
mixtures for, 230, 231 
output of, in Europe, 227 

United States, 228 
packing boxes for, 235-237 

material for, 239, 240 
physical properties of, 242, 243 
semi-steel, 213, 214 
time required for annealing, 241, 

242 
torsion test of, 243 
Manganese and ferro-manganese in a 
ladle, 1( 8, 109 
iron, 106-108 
eflfect of, on cast iron, 106-108 
metallic, discovery of, 106 
sulphide, 110, 111 
Melting and mixing semi steel, 221 
borings and turnings in the 

cupola, 55-57 
cast iron turnings and borings, 
48-51 



INDEX. 



273 



Melting furnaces for malleables, 
232-234 
iron, determining actual loss in, 
76, 77 
loss and gain in, 68-77 
pig and scrap iron, loss and gain 

in, 72-74 
points of cast irons, 261 
semi-steel, 209, 210 
silicon lost in, 98, 99 
steel with iron in the cupola, 

eflfect of, 206-209 
turnings and borings, new 

methods of, 52 
wrought iron and steel turnings 
and borings, 51, 52 
Metal turnings, briquetting of, 53-55 

washed, 154, 155 
Metalloid theory, 90-92 
Metalloids and elements, 95-114 
Metals, other, and iron, 115-124 
untried, in iron, 120 
various, effect of, on cast iron, 
119, 120 
Metzger, J. Jay, semi-steel mixtures 
for gasoline engine cylinders by, 
223-225 
Middlesboro iron, 159 
Mine car wheels, analysis of, 132 

iron for, 250 
Mirror iron, 166 
Mixing irons, liO 67 

ores, 4-6 
Mixture, tabulation of material to be 
charged, and method of figuring, 
133 
Mixtures for cupola, calculating, 132 
malleables, 230, 231 
locomotive cylinder, 64, 65 
machinery, 62, 63 
making of, 65-67 
of iron, 60, 61 
pig and scrap, 63, 64 
semi steel, 211, 212 
stove plate, 61, 62 
Mold castings, permanent, 146 
Moldenke, Dr., experiments by, in 
melting burned iron 
with vanadium, 121 
on the use of borings 
for annealing scale, 
59 
report by, on the coke 
industry, 11-16 
Molder, work of a, 252 
Molding machines, 146 

sand, 251 
Morris, Wm. G., 229 



Motor frame bases and spiders, 146 

Mottled iron, 155 

Mowers, 146 

Murphy, James A., on wearing quali- 
ties and other 
characteristics of 
semi-steel, 219- 
222 
semi-steel mixtures 
for steam cylin- 
ders published by» 
211, 212 

NEW MEXICO coke, 14 
Nickel, 164 
in iron, 119 
Niter pots, 146 

Nitrogen, affinity of titanium for, 110 
in iron, 114 

OHIO coke, 14 
Open-hearth basic iron, 159 
Ores, mixing of, 4-6 
Ornamental work, castings for, 146 
Ovens, annealing, 235-237 
Over-iron, 45, 46 
Oxidation of iron by heat, 81, 82 
Oxidized iron, 80-82 
Oxygen in iron, 112-114 

PACKING boxes, 238, 239 • 
material, 239, 240 
rings, automobile cylinder, 86, 
87 
Pennsylvania coke, 14, 15 
Philadelphia Foundrymen's Associa- 
tion standard specifications for 
foundry pig iron, 125-127 
Phosphor-manganese, 164, 165 
Phosphorus, discovery of, Ui9 

in iron, 109, 110 ' 
Physical test, direct, 181 
Piano plates, 147 
Pickling castings, 257, 258 
Pig, American Scotch, 30 

and scrap mixtures, 63, 64 
chilled, 31, 32 
iron, 30, 31 

All Mine, 159 

alloys and coke grading of, 

153-167 
and fracture grading pig and 

scrap irons, 20-39 
base or quoting price of, 130 
brands, directory of, 151, 152 
classification of, 20, 151, 152 
foundry, standard specifica- 
tions for, 125-131 



274 



INDEX. 



Pig iron, fracture .grading, L'0-o9 

gain in melting loo net tons, 

72 
grades of, 34 
hoodoo in, 176-178 
loss and gain in melting. 72- 

74 
prices of, 3, 4 

proposed standard specifica- 
tions for buying, 128, 129 
specifications, 125 
Thomas Gilchrist or Thomas, 
158 
irons, ordinary English, 159 
sand, 31 
sandless, 82, 33 
Scotch, 29, 30, 160 
Pigs, anthracite iron, 25, 26 
charcoal iron, 29 
coke iron, 24 
Pillow blocks, 147 
Pipe, 147 

fittings, 147 

analysis of, 132 
Piston rings, 147 

quality of, 225 
semi-steel mixture for, 225 
Plow and plow-point scrap, 42 

point scrap, loss in melting, 70 
points, chilled, 147 
Pot metal, 4 
Prince's patented process of melting 

borings, 56, 57 
Printing presses, castings for, 147 
Production of malleable iron, 244-246 
Promiscuous scrap, 42 
Propeller wheels, 148 
Pulleys, 148 

analysis of, 131 
Pumping engine cjlinders, semi-steel 

mixture for, 21 1 
Punched castings, 256, 257 

RAILROAD castings, 148 
track steel, melting of, 210 
Ramp, Paul R., locomotive cylinder 

mixtures given by, ()4, 65 
Rat tail, cause and prevention of, 248 
Red hematite, 3, 240 
phosphorus, 109 
Relative test, 181 
Remelt iron, 64 
Retorts, 148 

Revolving annealing ovens, 236, 237 
Riehl^ Bros Testing Machine Co., 

testing machines made by, 188 
Rolling mill scale, 240 

mills, housings for, 144 



Rolls, chilled, 148 
unchilled, 149 
Rust, decrease in value of cast iron 
by, 81 

SA. M. alloy, 163 
. Sampling and analysis, 129,130 
for analysis, 157, 158 
Sand match, mixture for, 258 

pig, ;^1 
Sandless pig, 32, 33 
Sandwiched hard spots, 82-84 
Sash weights, metal for, 84, 85, 251 
Scale, preparing the, 240, 241 
rolling mill, 240 
rusting the, 240 
Scales, 149 

Scotch pig, 29, 30, 160 
Scrap, average analysis of, to be 
charged, 132 
burned, 38, 39 

iron, fracture grading, 20-39 
indication in, 37 
loss and gain in melting, 72- 
74 
in melting loo tons, 73 
irons, 40-59 
malleable, 232 
shape of, 37, 38 
Selling castings, methods of, 261-264 
Semi-steel, 204-226 

and air-furnace iron, 220 

ferro-carbon, 217, 218 
castings, light, 205 

production of, 216-219 
comparisons of increase in 

strength of, 207, 208 
efficiency of steel scrap for, 

222 
elastic limit of, 216, 217. 
failures of founders in mak- 
ing, 221 
gears, 226 

Is it a misnomer? 222, 223 
malleables, 213, 214 
melting of, 209, 210, 221 

in a cupola, 206 
mixing materials for, in the 

cupola, 218 
mixture for piston rings, 225 
mixtures, 206, 211, 212 
calculating of, 212 
for cylinders, 2:i5 

gasoline engine cyl- 
inders, 223-225 
no steel in, 22(i-221 
practical requirements for^ 
221, 222 



INDEX. 



275 



Semi-steel, results in casting, 218, 219 
shrinkage in, 213 
tests of, 206, 2U7 
wearing qualities and other 
characteristics of, 219-222 
Shafting, collarsand couplings for, 140 

hangers for, 148 
Shafts, old way of casting, 21 
Shape, change of, 180 
Shaw, T., on melting cast iron bor- 
ings in the cupola, 08, 59 
Shot iron, 4(i 

loss in melting, 70 
methods of collecting, 46-48 
Shrinkage holes in castings, preven- 
tion of, 250 
in semi-steel, 213 
of white iron, 234 
uneven, in castings, 250 
Silico-spiegel. 165 
Silicon, 95-100 

as a flux, 99, 100 

content of, in pig irons for foun- 
dry work, 28 
controlling element in semi-steel 

making, 204 
distribution of, throughout the 

castintis, 27, 2<S 
effect of, 251 

on cast iron, 95, 90 
on iron, 9, 10, 27 
indication of too high, 28, 29 
iron, high, 26-29 
loss in meliing, 98, 99 
reduction of in steel scrap melt- 
ing, 218 
special high, 165 
Silver gray iron, 26 
Silvery irons, 158, 260, 261 
Slag car castings, 149 
Smelter coke, 162 

Smith, Philip, on the use of vana- 
dium, 121 
Smokestacks, 149 
Soft, heating or jamb coke, 162 
Soil pipe and fittings, 149 
Solway coke, 9, 16-19 
Spar ores, 3 

Specifications, proposed standard, for 
buying pig iron, 128, 129 
standard, for foundry' pig iron, 
125-131 
Spence, David, process of melting 
turnings and borings adopted by, 52 
Spiegel iron, 106, 166 
Standard analyses of the various 
grades of foundry and steel- 
making irons, -ferro alloys and 
melting fuel, 153-167 



Standard Bessemer, 153, 154 
ferro-manganese, 163 
foundry and furnace coke, 161 

test, 181, 182 
specifications for foundry pig 

iron, 125-131 
test, 181 
tests, 189-203 
Steam chests, 150 
Steam cylinders, 149, 150 

analysis of, 131 
semi-steel mixtures 
for, 211, 212 
lines, superheated, pipe fittings 
for. 147 
Steel casting scrap, 42, 43 

castings, prevention of blow holes 

in, 249 
effect of carbon in the manu- 
facture of, 101 
on cast iron, 205 
furnaces, 93, 94 
how browned, 258 
making, 214, 215 
melting of with iron in the 

cupola, effect of, 206-209 
plate punchings, melting of, 205 
rails, melting of 205, 210 
scrap, content of sulphur in melt- 
ing. 218 
efficiency of, for semi-steel, 

222 
reduction of silicon in melt- 

ing, 218 
use of, in the cupola, produc- 
tion of semi-steel castings, 
etc., 216-219 
strengthening cast iron with, 215, 

216 
superiority of cast iron to, for 

many purposes, 93, 94 
turnings and borings, melting of 
51, 52 
melting of 57, 210 
use of nickel in the manufacture 
of 119 
vanadium in, 121 
welding cast iron to, 256 
Sterling. Mr., patent of 44 
Stock coke, 162 

Stove foundry melting, results of, 74- 
76 
plate, 15(» 

analysis of, 131 
mixtures, 61, 62 
scrap, 41 

old, loss in melting, 69, 
70 
silicon in mixtures for, 96 



276 



INDEX. 



Sulphur, content of, in steel scrap 
melting, 218 
curious experience with, 111 
effect of, on iron, 9 
hardening iron with, 111, 112 
in iron, 110-112 

TEMPER in cast iron, So, 86 
Tennessee coke, 15 
Tensile strength of malleable iron, 
242 
test, 18U, 181 

tests of djnamo frame iron, 195- 
199 
Test bars, 182, 183 

care in casting, 183, 184 
length of, 183 • 
method of casting, 200-203 
required by civil engineers, 
185. 186 
chilled, 182 
crushing, 181 
definition of, 179 
direct physical, 181 
foundry standard, 181, 182 
fracture, 180 
impact, 180, 181 

pieces, tensile and other, 284, 285 
relative, 181 
standard, 181 
tensile, 180, 181 
transverse, 180 
Testing cast iron, 179-188 
laboratories, 173 
machines, 187, 188 
Tests, dynamo frame iron, 189-199 
of semi steel, 206, 207 
standard, 189-203 
Thomas Gilchrist or Thomas pig iron, 

158 
Tin, effect of, on cast iron, 119, 120 
Tinning cast iron, 253, 254, 258, 259 
Titanium, affinity of, for nitrogen, 110 

in iron, 115-117 
Torsion test for malleables, 243 
Transverse strength for light castings. 
249 
of malleable iron, 242 
test, 180 

tests of dynamo frame iron, 191- 
194 
Turner, Prof., researches of, 101 
Turnings and borings, cast iron, melt- 
ing of, 48-51 
new method of melt- 
ing, 52 
wrought iron and 
steel, melting of, 
51,52 



Turnings, melting of, in the cupola, 
55-57 
steel, melting of, 57 

UNITED STATES, first malleable 
iron founding in, 227 
malleable iron foun- 
dries in, 246 
output of malleables 
in, 228 
Use of steel scrap in the cupola, pro- 
duction of semi-steel castings, etc., 
216-219 

VALVE bushings, 150 
Valves, 150 
Vanadinite, 120 
Vanadium, 120-123 
effect of, 123, 248 
experiments with, 121, 122 
in cast iron, 124 
use of, in making steel, 121 
Virginia coke, 15 

Vosburgh, Walter S., revolving an- 
nealing oven designed by, 236, 2.37 

WARM blast charcoal iion, 160, 161 
Washed metal, 154, 155 
Washington coke, 15, 16 
Water heaters, 151 

pipes, wear of, 266 
Weaving machinery castings, 151 
Welding cast iron, 256 

to steel, 256 
West, Thos. D., report on methods of 

casting test-bars, 200-203 
West Virginia coke, 16 
Wheel centers, 151 
Wheels, 151 

diamond polishing, 140 
White iron, 155 

castings, 151 
chill of, 247 
shrinkage of, 234 
phosphorus, 109 
Will, Edwin C, on punched castings, 

256, 257 
Wilson Bros , on the use of vanadium, 

121, 122 
Wood working machinery castings, 

151 
Wrought iron and steel turnings and 
borings, melting of, 
51, 52 
scrap, 44, 45 
strengthening cast iron 
by, 44,45 

ZINC, effect of, on cast iron, 119, 
120 



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Finishing of Fabrics, Substitutes for Indigo, Water-Proofing (if 
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and other New Dye Wares, Harmonizing Colors, etc., etc. ; embrac- 
ing in all over 800 Receipts for Colors and Shades, accompanied by 
170 Dyed Samples of Raro Materials and Fabrics. By F. J. Bird, 
Practical Dyer, Author of " The Dyers' Hand-Book." 8vo. %^.oo 



HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE 



BLINN.— A Practical Workshop Companion for Tin, Sheet- 
Iron, and Copper-plate Workers: 
Containing Rules Tor describing various kinds of Patterns used by 
Tin, Sheet-Iron and Copper-plate Workers; Practical Geometry; 
Mensuration of Surfaces and Solids ; Tables of the Weights of 
Metals, Lead-pipe, etc. ; Tables of Areas and Circumferences 
of Circles; Japan, Varnishes, Lackers, Cements, Comivsitions, etc., 
etc. By Leroy T- Blinn, Master Mechanic. With One Hundred 
and Seventy Illustraiions. l2mo. ..... $2.SO 

BOOTH.— Marble Worker's Manual: 

Containing Practical luiorniation respecting Marbles in general, theil 
Cutting, Working and Polishing; Veneering of Marble; Mosaics; 
Composition and Use of Artificial Marble, Stuccos, Cements, Receipts, 
Secrets, etc., etc. Translated from the French by M. L. Booth. 
With an Appendix concerning American Marbles. l2mo., cloth ^1.50 

BRANNT. — A Practical Treatise on Animal and Vegetable 
Fats and Oils : 
Comprising both Fixed and Volatile Oils, their Physical and Chem- 
ical Propeities and Uses, the Manner of Extracting and Refining 
them, and Practical Rules tor Testing them; as well as the Manufac- 
ture of .'Artificial Butter and Lubricants, etc., with lists of American 
Patents relating to the Extraction, Rendering, Refining, Decomposing, 
and Bleaching of Fats and Oils. By WiLLiAM T. Brannt, Editor 
of the " Techno Chemical Receipt Book." Second Edition, Revised 
and in a great part Rewritten. Illustrated by 302 Engravings. In 
Two Volumes. 1304 pp. 8vo. ..... ;j5lo.oo 

BRANNT.— A Practical Treatise on the Manufacture of Soap 
and Candles : 
Based upon the most Recent Experiences in the Practice and Science ; 
comprising the Chemistry, Raw Materials, Machine-y, and Utensils 
and Various Processes of Manufacture, including a great variety of 
formulas. Edited chiefly from the German of Dr. C. Deite, A. 
Engelhardt, Dr. C. Schaedler and others; with additions and list? 
of American Patents relating to these subjects. By Wm. T. Brannt. 
Illustrated by 163 engravings. 677 pages. 8vo. . . ^12.50 

BRANNT —India Rubber, Gutta-Percha and Balata : 

Occurrence, Geographical Distribution, and Cultivation, Obtaining 
and Preparing the Raw Materials, Modes of Working and Utilizing 
them, Including Washing, Maceration, Mixing, Vulcanizing, Rubber 
and Gutta-Percha Compounds, Utilization of Waste, etc. By Will- 
iam T. Brannt. Illustrated. i2mo. (1900.) . . $3-oo 



HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 



BRANNT— WAHL.— The Techno-Chemical Receipt Book: 

Containing several thousand Receipts covering the latest, most im. 
portant, and most useful discoveries in Chemical 'iechnology, and 
their Practical Application in the Arts and the Industries. Edited 
chiefly from the Cerman of Drs. Winckler, Eisner, Heintze, Mier- 
zinski, Jacobsen, Roller and Heinzerling, with additions by Wm. T. 
Brannt and Wm. H. Wahl, Ph. D. Illustrated by 78 engravings. 
l2nio. 495 pages. ....... ^2.00 

BROWN. — Five Hundred and Seven Mechanical Movements : 
Embracing all those which are most important in Dynamics, Hy- 
draulics, Hydrostatics, Pneumatics, Steam Engines, Mill and other 
Gearing, Presses, Horology, and Miscellaneous Machinery ; and in- 
cluding many movements never before published, and several of 
which have only recently come into use. By Henry T. Bkown. 
I2mo. ......... $1.00 

BUCKMASTER.— The Elements of Mechanical Physics : 
By J. C. BucKMASTER. Illustrated with numerous engravings. 
l2mo. .......... $1.00 

8ULLOCK. — The American Cottage Builder : 
A Series of Designs, Plans and Specifications, from ^200 to ^20,000, 
for Homes for the People ; together with Warming, Ventilation, 
Drainage, Painting and Landscape Gardening. By John Bullock, 
Architect and Editor of " The Rudiments of Architecture and 
Building," etc., elc. Illustrated by 75 engravings. Svo. 

BULLOCK. — The Rudiments of Architecture and Building: 
For the use of Architects, Builders, l)riUL;htsmen. Machinists, En- 
gineers and Mechanics. Edited by John Bullock, author of " The 
American Cottage Builder." Illustrated by 250 Engravings. 8vo.i^2.50 

BURGH. — Practical Rules for the Proportions of Modem 
Engines and Boilers for Land and Marine Purposes. 
By N. P. BuROH, Engineer. I2mn. .... ^1.50 

BYLES — Sophisms of Free Trade and Popular Political 

Econ my Examined. 

By a Barrister (Sir John Barnard Byles, Judge of Common 

Pleas). From the Ninth English Edition, as published by the 

Manchester Reciprocity Associaticn. i2mo. . . . #1.25 

BOWMAN.— The Structure of the Wool Fibre in its Relation 
to the Use of 'Wool for Technical Purposes: 
Being the substance, with additions, of Five Lectures, delivered at 
the request of the Council, to the members of the Bradford Technical 
College, and the Society of Dyers and Colorists. By F. H. Bow- 
man, D. Sc, F. R. S. E., F. L. S. Illustrated by 32 engravings. 
8vo 00 

BYRNE. — Hand-Book for the Artisan, Mechanic, and Engl- 

neer : 

Comprising the Grinding and Sharpening of Cutting Tools, Abrasive 

Processes, Lapidary Work, Gem and Glass Engraving, Varnishing 

and Lackering, Apparatus, Materials and Processes for Grinding and 



HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUJi. f 

Polishing, etc. By Oliver Byrne. Illustrated by 185 wood en- 
gravings. 8vo. ........ i^S.oo 

3YRNE. — Pocket-Book lor Railroad and Civil Engineers: 

Containing New, Exact and Concise Methods for Laying out Railroad 
Curves, Switches, Frog Angles and Crossings ; the Staking out of 
work; Levelling; the Calculation of Cuttings: Embankments; Earth- 
work, etc By Oliver Byrne. i8mo., full bound, pocket-book 
form ^1.50 

bYRNE. — Tne Practical Metal- Worker's Assistant: 

Comprising Metallurgic Chemistry; the Arts of Working all Metals 
and Alloys ; Forging of lion and Steel ; Hardening and Tempering; 
Melting and Mixing; Casting and Founding; Works in Sheet Metal; 
the Processes Dependent on the Ductility of the Metals; Soldering; 
and the most Improved Processes and Tools employed by Metal- 
workers. With the Application of the Art of EiectroMetallurgy to 
Manufacturing Processes; collected from Original Sources, and from 
the works of Holtzapffel, Bergeron, Leupold, Plumier, Napier, 
Scoffern, Clay, Fairbairn and others. By Oliver Byrne. A new, 
revised and improved edition, to which is added an Appendix, con- 
taining The Manufacture of Russian Sheet- Iron. By JoH.N PERCY, 
M. D., F. R. S. The Manufacture of Malleable Iron Castings, and 
Improvements in Bessemer Steel. By A. A. Fesquet, Chemist and 
Engineer. Wuh over Six Hundred Engravings, Illustrating every 
Branch of the Subject. 8vo ^5.00 

BYRNE.— The Practical Model Calculator: 

For the Engineer, Mechanic, Manufacturer of Engine Work, Navai 
Architect, Miner and Millwright. By Oliver Byrne. 8vo., nearly 
600 pages (Scarce.) 

r\HlNET MAKER'S ALBUM OF FURNITURE-. 

Comprising a Collection of Designs for various Styles of Furnitmre. 
Illustrated by Forty-eight Large and Beautifully Engraved Plates. 
Oblong, 8vo. ........ ^1.50 

CALLINGHAM.— Sign Writing i:,nd Glass Embossing: 

A Complete Praciical Illustrated Manual of the Art. By James 
CALLINGHAM. To which are added Numerous Alphabets and the 
Art of Letter Painting Made Easy. By James C. Badenoch. 258 

pages. i2mo I1.50 

CAM PIN. —A Practical Treatise on Mechanical Engineering: 
Comprising Metallurgy, Moulding, Casting, Forging, Tools, Work, 
shop Machinery, Mechanical Manipulation, Manufacture of Steam- 
Engines, etc. With an Appendix on the Analysis of Iron and Iron 
Ores. By Fpancis Campin, C. E. To which are added, Observation* 
CD the Construction of Steam Boilers, and Remarks upon Furnaces 
used for Smoke Prevention ; with a Chapter on Explosions. By R. 
Armstrong, C. E., and John Bourne. (Scarce.) 



HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 



CAREY.— A Memoir of Henry C. Carey. 
By Dr. \Vm. Elder, With a portrait. 8vo., cloth . . 75 

CAREY.— The Works of Henry C. Carey : 

Harmony of Interests : Agricultural, Manufacturing and Commer- 
cial. 8vo. . , $\.2$ 

Manual of Social Science. Condensed from Carey's •' Principles 
of Social Science." By Kate McKean. I vol. i2mo. . $2.00 
Miscellaneous Works. With a Portrait. 2 vols. 8vo. Iiooo 
Past, Present and Future. 8vo. ..... $2.^0 

Principles of Social Science. 3 volumes, 8vo. . . g 10.00 
The Slave-Trade, Domestic and Foreign; Why it Exists, and 
How it may be Extinguished (1853). ^vo. . . . $2.00 

The Unity of Law : As Exhibited in the Relations of Physical, 
Social, Mental and Moral Science (1872). 8vo. , . JS52.50 

CLARK. — Tramways, their Construction and Working: 

Embracing a Comprehensive History of the System. With an ex- 
haustive analysis of the various modes of traction, including horse- 
power, steam, heated water and compressed air; a description of the 
varieties of Rolling stock, and ample details of cost and working ex- 
penses. By D. KiNNEAR C'-ARK. Illustrated by over 200 wood 
engravings, and thirteen folding plates. i vol. 8vo. . i^S.oo 

COLBURN.— The Locomotive Engine : 

Including a Description of its Structure, Rules for Estimating its 
Capabilities, and Practical Observations on its Construction and Man 
agement. By Zerah Colburn. Illustrated. i2mo. . ^i.oo 

wOLLENS.— The Eden of Labor; or, the Christian Utopia. 
By T. Wharton Collens, author of " Humanics," " The Historj 
of Charity," etc. i2mo. Paper cover, ^i. 00 ; Cloth . $1.2^ 

600LEY. — A Complete Practical Treatise on Perfumery: 
Being a Hand-book of Perfumes, Cosmetics and other Toilet Article! 
With a Comprehensive Collection of Formulae. By Arnold I 
CooLEY. 121110 $1.50 

COOPER.— A Treatise on the use of Belting for the Tranw- 
mission of Power. 
With numerous illustrations of approved and actual methods of ar- 
ranging Main Driving and Quarter Twist Belts, and of Belt Fasten 
ings. Examples and Rules in great number for exhibiting and cal- 
culating the size and driving power of Belts. Plain, Particular and 
Practical Directions for the Treatment, Care and Manigenient o'^ 
Belts. Descriptions of many varieties of Beltings, together with 
chapters on the Transmission of Power by Ropes ; by Iron and 
Wood Frictional Gearing ; on the Strength of Belting Leather ; and 
on the Experimental Investigations of Morin, Briggs, and others. Bf 
John H. Cooper, M. E. 8vo $i-S9 

CRAIK. — The Practical American Millwright and MUler. 

By David Craik, Millwright. Illustrated by numerous wooa en 
gravings and two folding plates. 8vo. , . . • (Scarce.) 



HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 9 

CROSS.— The Cotton Yarn Spinner : 

Showing how the Preparation should be arninged for Differem 
Counts of Yarns by a System more uniform than has hitherto been 
practiced; by having a Standard Schedule from which we make all 
our Changes. By Richard Cross. 122 pp. i2mo. . 75 

CRISTIANI.— A. Technical Treatise on Soap and Candles: 

With a Glance at tlie Industry of Fats and Oils. By R. S. Cris- 
TiANi, Chemist. Author of " Perfumery and Kindred Arts." Illus- 
trated by 176 engravings. 581 pages, 8vo. $li;.oo 

COURTNEY. — The Boiler Maker's Assistant in Drawing, 
Templating, and Calculating Boiler Work and Tank 
Work, etc. 
Revised by D. K. Clark. 102 ills. Fifth edition. . . 80 
COURTNEY.— The Boiler Maker's Ready RecKoner: 

With Examples of Practical Geometry and Templating. Revised by 
D. K. Clark, C. E. 37 illustrations. Fifth edition. • |l.6o 

DAVIDSON. — A Practical Manual of House Painting, Grain- 
ing, Marbling, and Sign- Writing: 

Containing full information on the processes of House Painting ic 
Oil and Distemper, the Formation of Letters and Practice of Sign- 
Writing, the Principles of Decorative Art, a Course of Elementary 
Drawing for House Painters, Writers, etc., and a Collection of Useful 
Receipts. With nine colored illustrations of Woods and Marbles, 
and numerous wood engravings. By Ellis A Davidson. i2mo. 

52.00 

DAVIES. — A Treatise on Earthy and Other Minerals and 

Mining: 
By D. C. Davies, F. G. S., Mining Engineer, etc. Illustrated by 
76 Engravings. i2mo. ...... . $5.00 

DAVIES. — A Treatise on Metalliferous Minerals and Mining: 
By D. C. Davies, F. G. S , Mining Engineer, E.xaminer of Mines, 
Quarries and Collieries. Illustrated by 148 engravings of Geological 
Formations, Mining Operations and Machinery, drawn from the 
practice of all parts of the world. Fifth Edition, thoroughly Revised 
and much Enlarged by his son, E. Henry Davies. i2mo., 524 
pages . . . 55.00 

DIETERICHS.— A Treatise on Friction, Lubrication, Oils 
and Fats : 
The Manufacture of Lubricating Oils, Paint Oils, and of Grease, and 
the Testing of Oils. By E, F. Dieterichs, Member of the Franklin 
Institute; Member National Association of Stationary Engineers; 
Inventor of Dieterichs' Valve-Oleum Lubricating Oils. l2mo. (1906.) 
A practical book by a practical man. .... 5l.25 

DAVIS. — A Practical Treatise on the Manufacture of Brick, 
Tiles and Terra-Cotta : 

Including Stiff Clay, Dry Clay, Hand Made, Pressed or Front, kimI 
Roadway Paving Brick, Enamelled Brick, with Glazes and CoUrt, 
Fire Brick and Blocks. Silica Brick, Carbon Brick, Glass Pots, %*■ 



lo HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 

torts, Arcliitectural Terra-Cotta, Sewer Pipe, Drain Tile, Glazed and 
Ungiazed Roofing Tile, Art Tile, Mosaics, and Imitation of Intarsia 
or Inlaid Surfaces. Comprising every product of Clay employed in 
Architecture, Engineering, and the Blast Furnace. With a Detailed 
Description of the Different Clays employed, the Most Modern 
Machinery, Tools, and Kilns used, and the Processes for Handling, 
Disintegrating, Tempering, and Moulding tlie Clay into Shape, Dry- 
ing, Setting, and Burning. By Charles Thomas Davis. Third Edi- 
tion. -Revised and in great part rewritten. Illustrated by 261 
engravings. 662 pages ....... ^20.cx> 

DAVIS. — A Treatise on Steam-Boiler Incrustation and Meth- 
ods for Preventing Corrosion and the Formation of Scale: 
By Charles T. Davis. Illustrated by 65 engravings. 8vo. 

DAVIS.— The Manufacture of Paper : 

Being a Description of the various Processes for the Fabrication, 
("oloring and Finishing of every kind of Paper, Including the Dif- 
ferent Raw Materials and the Metliods for Determining their Values, 
the Tools, Machines and Practical Details connected with an intelli- 
gent and a profitable prosecution of the art, with special reference to 
the best American Practice. To which are added a History of Pa- 
per, complete Lists of Paper-Making Materials, List of American 
Machines, Tools and Processes used in treating the Raw Materials, 
and in Making, Coloring and Finishing Paper. By Charles T. 
Davis. Illustrated by 156 engravings. 608 pages, Svo. $6.00 

DAVIS. — The Manufacture of Leather: 

Being a Description of all the Processes for the Tanning and Tawing 
with Bark, Extracts, Chrome and all Modern Tannages in General 
Use, and the Currying, Finishing and Dyeing of Every Kind of Leather; 
Includmg tiie Various Raw Materials, the Tools, Machines, and all 
Details of Ini|)ortance Connected with an Intellii^ent and Profitable 
Prosecution of the Art, with Special Reference to the Best .\meiican 
Practice. To which are added Lists of American Patents ( 1884-1897) 
for Materials, Processes, Tools and Machines for Tanning, Currying, 
etc. By Charles Thomas Davis. Second Edition, Revised, and 
in great part Rewritten. Illustrated by 147 engravings and 14 Sam- 
ples of Quebracho Tanned and Aniline Dyed Leathers. Svo, cloth, 
712 pages. Price $12.50 

DAWIDOWSKY— BRANNT.— A Practical Treatise on the 

Raw Materials and Fabrication of Glue, Gelatine, Gelatine 

Veneers and Foils, Isinglass, Cements, Pastes, Mucilages, 

etc. : 

Eased upon Actual Experience. By F. Dawidowsky, Technical 

Chemist. Translated from the German, with extehsive additions, 

including a description of the most Recent American Processes, by 

William T. Brannt. 2d revised edition, 350 pages. (1905.) 

Price . . . . . . . . . . $3.00 

DE GRAFF.— The Geometrical Stair-Builders' Guide: 

Being a I'lain Practical System of Hand-Railing, embracing all it; 
necessary Details, and Geometrically Illustrated by twenty-tw-o Steei 
Engravings; together with the use of the most approved j^rinciple 
nf Practical Geometry By SiMON De Grakf, Architect (Scaiccj 



HENRY CAREV BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. i\ 



DE KONINCK— DIETZ.— A Practical Manual of Chemical 
Analysis and Assaying : 

As applied to the Manufacture of Iron from its Ores, and to Cast IroB, 
Wrought Iron, and Steel, as found in Commerce. By L. L. Db 
KoNiNCK, Dr. Sc, and E. Dietz, Engineer. Edited with Notes, by 
Robert Mallet, F. R. S., F. S. G., M. I. C. E., etc. American 
Edition, Edited with Notes and an Appendix on Iron Ores, by A. A, 
Fesquet, Chemist and Engineer. i2mo. . . . ^i.oo 

DUNCAN.— Practical Surveyor's Guide: 
Containing the necessary information to make any person of comj 
mon capacity, a finished land surveyor without the aid of a teacher. 
By Andrew Duncan. Revised. 72 engravings, 214pp. i2mo. ^^1.50 

DUPLAIS. — A Treatise on the Manufacture and Distillatioo 
of Alcoholic Liquors : 
Comprising Accurate and Complete Details in Regard to Alcohol 
from Wine, Molasses, Beets, Grain, Rice, Potatoes, Sorghum, Aspho 
del. Fruits, etc. ; with the Distillation and Rectification of Brandy 
Whiskey, Rum, Gin, Swiss Absinthe, etc., the Preparation of Aro- 
matic Waters, Volatile Oils or Essences, Sug.nrs, Syrups, Aromatic 
Tinctures, Liqueurs, Cordial Wines, Effervescing Wines, etc.. tiM 
Ageing of Brandy and the improvement of Spirits, with Cc^ioas 
Directions and Tables for Testing and Reducing Sj^irituous Liquors, 
etc., etc. Translated and Edited from the French of MM. DuPLAlS^ 
By M. McKennie, M. D. Illustrated 74-? pp. 8vo. $15.00 

OYER AND COLOR-MAKER'S COMPANION: 

Containing upwards of two huniired Receipts for making Colors, oo 
the most approved principles, for all the vni ious styles and fabrics now 
in evistence ; with the Scouring Process, and plain Directions fof 
Preparing, Washing-ofi". and Finishing tlie Goods i2mo. $l 00 

EIDHERR.— The Techno-Chemical Guide to Distillation: 
A Hand-Book for the Manufacture of Alcohol ami Alcoholic Liquors^ 
including the Preparation of Malt and Compressed Yeast. Edited 
from tiie German of Ed. Eidherr. 

EDWARDS. — A Catechism of the Marine Steam-Engine, 
For the use of Engineers, Firemen, and Mechanics. A Practical 
Work for Practical Men. By Emory Edwards, Mechanical Engi- 
neer. Illustrated by sixty-thiee Engravings,, including examples of 
the most modern Engines. Third edition, thoroughly revised, with 
much additional matter. 12 mo. 414 jiages . . . $2 OC. 

HOWARDS. — Modern American Locomotive Engines, 
Their Design, Construction and Management. By Emory EdwardS*. 
Illustrated i2mo $2.00 

EDWARDS.— The American Steam Engineer: 

Theoretical and Practical, with examples of the late^: and most ap- 
proved American practice in the design and construction of Steam 
Engines and Boilers. For the use of engineers, machinists, boiler- 
WMikers, and engineering students. By Emory Edwards. Fully 
mustrated, 419 pages. i2mo. ■ . . . $2.00 



12 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 

EDWARDS. — Modern American Marine Engines, Boilers, am 
Screw Propellers, 

Their Design and Construction. Showing the Present Praaice ol 
the most Eminent Engineers and Marine Engine Builders in the 
United States. Illustrated by 30 large and elaborate plates. 410. ^3.00 
EDWARDS.— The Practical Steam Engineer's Guide 

In the Design, Construction, and Management of American Stationary, 
Portable, and Steam Fire-Engines, Steam Pumps, Boilers, Injector^ 
Governors, Indicators, Pistons and Rings, Safety Valves and Steam 
Gauges. For the use of Engineers, Firemen, and Steam Users. By 
Emory Edwards. Illustrated by 119 engravings. 4.20 pages, 

l2mo $2.00 

EISSLER.— The Metallurgy of Silver : 

A Practical Treatise on the Amalgamation, Roasting, and Lixivi-ntion 
of Silver Ores, including the Assaying, Melting, and Refining of 
Silver Bullion. By M. EissLER. 124 Illustrations. 336 pp. 
i2mo. .......... 2^4.25 

ELDER.^Conversations on the Principal Subjects of Political 
Economy. 
By Dr. William Elder. 8vo. ... . ^2.00 

ELDER.— Questions of the Day, 

Economic and Social. By Dr. WILLIAM Elder. 8vo. . ^3.00 
ERNI AND BROWN.— Mineralogy Simplified. 

Easy Methods of Identifying Minerals, including Ores, by Means of 
the Blow-pipe, by Flame Reactions, by Humid Chemical Analysis, 
and by Physical Tests. By Henri Erni, A. M., M. D. Fourth Edi- 
tion, revised, re-arranged and with the addition of entirely new matter, 
including Tables for the Determination of Minerals by Chemical and 
Pyrognostic Characters, and by Physical Characters By Amos P. 
Brown, E. M., Ph.D. 464pp..ilhistrateilby 123 engravings, pocket- 
book form, full flexible morocco, gilt edges . . . ^2.50 
FAIRBAIRN. The Principles of Mechanism and Machinery 
of Transmission : 
Comprising the Principles of Mechanism, Wheels, and Pulleys, 
Strength and Proportion of Shafts, Coupling of Shafts, and Engag- 
ing and Disengaging Gear. By SiR William Fairbairn, Bart. 
C. E. Beautifully illustrated by over 150 wood-cuts. In one 
volume, l2mo. ........ ^2.00 

FLEMING. — Narrow Gauge Railways in America : 

A Sketch of their Rise, Progress, and Success. Valuable Statistics 
as to Grades, Curves, Weight of Rail, Locomotives, Cars, etc. By 

Howard F'leming. Illustrated, 8vo ^i.co 

FORSYTH.— Book of Designs for Headstones, Mural, and 
other Monuments : 
Containing 78 Designs. By James Forsyth, With an Introduction 
by Charles Boutell, M. A. 4to., cloth . . . ^^3.50 
FRIEDBERG. Utilization of Bones by Chemical Means; 
especially the Modes of Obtaining Fat, Glue, 'Manures, 
Phosphorus and Phosphates. 
Illustrated. 8vo. (In preparation.) 



HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. ij 



» RANKEL—HUTTER.— A Practical Treatise on the Man«« 
facture of Starch, Glucose, Starch-Sugar, and Dextrine: 
Based on the German of Ladislaus Von Wagner, Professor in the 
Royal Technical High School, BudaPest, Hungary, and other 
authorities. By Julius Frankel, Graduate of the Polytechnic 
School of Hanover. Edited by Robert Hutter, Chemist, Practical 
Manufacturer of Starch-Sugar. Illustrated by 5S engravings, cover- 
ing every branch of the subject, including examples of the most 
Recent and Best American Machinery. 8vo., 344 pp. ^6.00 

ilARDNER.— The Painter's Encyclopaedia: 
Containing Definitions of a'.l Important Words in the Art of Plain 
and Artistic Painting, with Details of Practice in Coach, Carriage, 
Railway Car, House, Sign, and Ornamental Painting, including 
Graining, Marbling, Staining, Varnishing, Polishing, Lettering, 
Stenciling, Gilding, Bronzing, etc. By Franklin B. Gardner. 
158 Illustrations. i2mo. 427 pp. ..... $2.oC 

GARDNER. — Everybody's Paint Book: 

A Complete Guide to the Art of Outdoor and Indooi Painting. 38 
illustrations. i2mo, 183 pp. ...... ^i.oo 

GEE. — The Jeweller's Assistant in the Art of Working in 
Gold: 
A Practical Treatise foi Masters and Workmen. l2mo. . I53.00 

GEE. — The Goldsmith's Handbook : 

Containing full instructions for the Alloying and Working of Gold, 
including the Art of Alloying, Melting, Reducing, Coloring, Col- 
lecting, and Refining: the Processes of Manipulation, Recovery of 
Waste; Chemical and Physical Properties of Gold; with a New 
System of Mixing its Alloys; Solders, Enamels, and other Useful 
Rules and Recipes. By George E. Gee. i2mo. o . ^1.25 

GEE. — The Silversmith's Handbook : 

Containing full iubtructions for the Alloying and Working of Silver, 
including the different modes of Refinir-^ :.nd Melting the Metal; its 
Solders; the Preparation of Imitation Alloys; Methods of Manipula- 
tion ; Prevention of Waste ; Instructions for Improving and Finishing 
the Surface of the Work ; together with other Useful Information and 
Memoranda. By George E. Gee. Illustrated. i2mo. Sr.25 

GOTHIC ALBUM FOR CABINET-MAKERS: 

Designs for Gothic Furniture. Twenty-three plates. Oblong $1-$^ 

GRANT.— A Handbook on the Teeth of Gears : 
Their Curves, Properties, and Practical Construction. By Georgb 
B. Grant. Illustrated. Third Edition, enlarged. 8vo. $100 

GREENWOOD.— Iron and Steel: 
Vol. I. Iron : Its Sources, Properties, and Manufacture. By Will- 
iam Henry Greenwood. Revised and Re-written by A. Hum- 
boldt Sexton. 255pp. Illustrated i2mo. . . . ^i.oo 
Vol. II. Steel • Its Varieties, Properties, and Manufacture By 
William Henry Greenwood. Revised and Re-written by A. 
Humboldt Sexton. 254pp. Illustrated. i2mo. . . $1.00 



14 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE 



GREGORY. — Mathematics for Practical Men : 

Adapted to the Pursuits of Surveyors, Architects, Mechanics, and 
Civil Engineers. By Olinthus Gregory. 8vo., plates $3-0(i 

GUISWOLD. — Railroad Engineer's Pocket Companion for th» 
Field : 
Comprising Rules for Calculating Deflection Distances and Angles, 
Tangential Distances and Angles, and all Necessary Tables for Kn 
gineers; also the Art of Levelling from Pie'liminaiy Survey to the 
Construction of Railroads, intended Expressly for the Young En- 
gineer, together with Numerous Valuable Rules and Examples. By 
W. Griswold. i2mo., tucks $150 

GRUNER. — Studies of Blast Furnace Phenomena: 

By M. L. Gruner, President of the General Council of Mines o^ 
France, and lately Professor of Metallurgy at the Ecole des Mines 
Translated, with the author's sanction, vv^ith an /vppendix, by L. 
B. Gordon, F. R. S. E., F. G. S. 8vo. . . . $2.so 

Hand-Book of Useful Tablss for the Lumberman, Farmet and 
Mechanic: 
Containing Accurate Tables of Logs Reduced to Inch Board Meas- 
ure, Plank, Scantling and Timber Measure ; Wages and Rent, by 
Week or Month; Capacity of Granaries, Bins and Cisterns; Land 
Measure, Interest Tables, with Directions for Finding the Interest on 
any sum at 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8 per cent., and many other Useful Tables. 
32 mo., boards. Ib6 pages ...... .25 

HASERICK.— The Secrets of the Art of Dyeing Wool, Cottoa 
and Linen, 
Including Bleachiiig and Coloring Wool and Cotton Hosiery and 
Random Yarns. A Treatise based on Economy and Practice. By 
E. C. Haserick. Illustrated by 323 Dyed Patterns of the Yarm 
or Fabrics. 8^'0. ........ ^5*^^ 

HATS AND FELTING: 

A Practical Treatise on their Manufacture. By a Practical Hatter, 
Illustrated by Drawings of Machinery, etc. 8vo. . . ^i.oo 

HERMANN. — Painting on Glass and Porcelain, and Enamel 
Painting: 
A Complete Introduction to the Preparation of all the Colors and 
Fluxes Used for Painting on Glass, Porcelain, Enamel, Faience and 
Stoneware, the Color Pastes and Colored Glasses, together with a 
Minute Description ot the Firing ot Colors and Enamels, on thj 
Basis of Personal Practical Experience of the Art up to Date. 18 
illustrations. Second edition. ..... #4.00 

HAUPT. — Street Railway Motors: 

With Descriptions and Cost of Plants and Operation of the Various 
Systems now in Use. I^v-^ .... ;?i-75 



HBMRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 



HAUPT. — A Manual of Engineering Specifications and Con« 
tracts. 
By Lewis M. Haupt, C. E. Illustrated with numerous maps. 

328pp. 8vo ^3 00 

HAUPT. — The Topographer, His Instruments and Methods. 
By Lewis M. Haupt, A. M., C. E. Illustrated with numerous 
plates, maps and engravings. 247 pp. 8vo. . . . ^3.00 
HUGHES. — American Miller and Millwright's Assistant: 

By William Carter Hughes. i2mo ^1.50 

HULME. — Worked Examination Questions in Plane Geomet- 
rical Drawing : 
For the Use of Candidates for the Royal Military Academy, Wool- 
,wich; the Royal Military College, Sandliurst ; the Indian Civil En- 
gineering College, Cooper's Hill ; Indian Public Works and Tele- 
graph Departments ; Royal Marine Lii;ht Infantry; the Oxford and 
Cambridge Local Examinations, etc. By F. Edward Hulme, F. L. 
S., F. S. A., Art-Master Marlborough College. Illustrated by 300 
examples. Small quarto . . . . . » $t 00 

JEKVIS.— Railroad Property: 

A Treatise on the Construction and Management of Railw.nysj 
designed to afford useful knowledge, in the popular style, to the 
holders of this class of property ; as well as Railway Manager-s, <'.)ffi- 
cers, and Agents. By John B. Jervis, late Civil Engineer of the 
Hudson River Railroad, Croton Aqueduct, etc. i2mo., cloth ^l.t;o 
KEENE.— A Hand-Book of Practical Gauging: 
For the Use of Beginners, to which is added a Chapter on Distilla 
tion, describing the process in operation at the Custom- House for 
ascertaining the Strength of Wines. By James B. Keene, of H. M. 

Customs. 8vo $1 OC 

KELLEY.— Speeches, Addresses, and Letters on Industrial and 
Financial Questions : 
By Hon. William D. Kelley, M. C. 544 pages, 8vo. . S2.50 
KOENIG.— Chemistry Simplified: 

A Course of Lectures on tlie Non-Metals Based upon the Natural 
Evolution of Chemistry. Designed Primarily for Engineers. By 
George Augustus Koenig, Ph.D., A.M., E. M., Professor of 
Chemistry, Michigan College of Mines, Houghton. Illustrated by 
103 Original Drawings. 449 pp. i2mo., (1906). . . 1^2.25 
KEMLO.— Watch- Repairer's Hand-Book : 
Being a Complete Guide to the Young Beginner, in Taking Apart, 
Putting Together, and Thoroughly Cleaning the English Lever and 
other Foreign Watches, and all American Watches. By F. Kemlo, 
Sactical Watchmaker. With Illustrations. i2mo. ^x.25 



t6 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 



KENTISH.— A Treatise on a Box of Instruments, 

And the Slide Ruie; with the Theory of Trigonometry and Logs 
rithms, including Practical Geometry, Surveying, Measuring of Tini' 
ber, Cask and Malt Gauging, Heights, and Distances. By Thoma? 
Kentish. In one volume. i2mo. .... ^I.OC 

KERL.— The Assayer's Manual: 

An Abridged Treatise on the Docimastic Examination of Ores, and 
Furnnce and other Artihci .1 Products. By Bruno Kerl, Professor 
,in the Royal School of Mines. Translated from the German by 
William T. Brannt. Second American edition, edited with Ex- 
tensive Additions by F. LvNWOon Garrison, Mem-ber of the 
American Institute of Mining Engineers, etc. lUu.strated by 87 en- 
gravings. 8vo. (Third Edition in preparation. ) 
KICK.— Flour Manufacture. 
A Treatise on Milling Science and Practice. By Frederick Kick 
Imperial Regierungsrnth, Professor of Mechanical Technology in tht 
.imptrial German Polytechnic Institute, Prague. Translated from 
the seccnd enlarged and revised edition with supplement by H. H. 
P. PowLES, Assoc. Memb Institution of Civil Engineers. Illustrated 
with 28 Plates, and 167 Wood-cuts. 367 pages. 8vo. . $io.OO 
RINGZETT.— The History, Products, and Processes of tha 
Alkali Trade : 
including the most Recent Improvements. By Charles Thoma» 
VCivf-.7ETr Consiiltinij Chemist. With 23 illustrations. 8vo. ^2.50 
KIRK. — The Cupola Furnace: 

A Practical Treatise on the L onstruction and Management of Foundry 
Cupolas. By Edward Kirk, Practical Moulder and Melter, Con- 
sulting Expert in Melting. Illustrated by 78 engravings. Second 
Edition. revi.sed and enlarged. 450 pages. 8vo. 1903. $3-50 

LANDRIN.— A Treatise on Steel: 

Comprising its Theory, Metallurgy, Properties, Practical Working, 
and Use. By M. H. C. Landrin, Jr. From the French, by A. A. 

Fesquet. i2mo $2.50 

LANGBEIN— A Ccmplete Treatise on the Electro-Deposi. 
tion of Metals : 
Comprising Electro- Plating and Galvanoplastic Operations, the De- 
position of Metals by the Contact and Immersion Processes, the Color- 
ing of Metals, the Methods of Grinding and Polishing, as well a? 
Description of the Voltaic Cells, Dynamo-Electric Machines, Ther- 
mopyle.^', and of the Materials and Processes Used in Every Depart- 
ment of the Art. Translated from the Fifth German Edition ot 
Dr. George Langbein, Proprietor of a Manufactory for Chemical 
Products, Machines, Apparatus and Utensils for Electro-Platers, and 
of an Electro- Plating Establishment in Leipzig. With Additions by 
William T. Brannt, Editoi of ''The Techno-Chemical Receipt 
Book." Sixth Edition, Revised and Enlarged. Illustrated by 163 
Engravings, 8vo , 725 pages (1909) . . . . . Jg4 00 

LEHNER.— The Manufacture of Ink: 

Comprising the Raw Materials, and the Preparation of Waiting, 
Copying and Hekiograph Inks, Safety Inks, Ink Extracts and Pow- 
ders, etc. Translated from the German of Sigmund Lehner, with 
additions by William T. Brannt. Illustrated. i2mo. itz.bo 



HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE 17 

L.ARKIN. — The Practical Brass and Iron Founder's Guide .• 
A Concise Treatise on Brass Founding, Moulding, ihe Metals an<3 
their Alloys, etc.; to wnich are added Recent Improvements in th€ 
Manufacture of Iron, Steel by the Bessemer Process, etc., etc. 3j 
James Larkin, late Conductor of the Brass Foundry Department it 
keany, Neafie & Co.'s Penn Works, Philadelphia. New edition^ 
revised, v\ith extensive additions. 414 pages. l2mo. . ^2.50 

LEROUX. — A Practical Treatise on the Manufacture of 
Worsteds and Carded Yarns : 
Comprising Practical Mechanics, with Rules and Calculations applied 
to Spinning; Sorting, Cleaning, and Scouring Wools; the English 
and French Methods of Combing, Drawing, and Spinning Worsteds, 
and Manufacturing Carded Yarns. Translated from the French of 
Charles Leroux, Mechanical Engineer and Superintendent of a 
Spinning-Mill, by Horatio Paine, M. D., and A. A. Fesquet, 
Chemist and Engineer. Illustrated by twelve large Plates. To which 
is added an Appendix, containing Extracts from the Reports of th« 
International Jury, and of the Artisans selected by the Committee 
appointed by the Council of the Society of Arts, London, on Woole« 
and Worsted Machinery and Fabrics, as exhibited in the Paris Uni- 
versal Exposition, 1S67. 8vo. $4-00 

t.EFFEL. — The Construction of Mill-Dams: 

Comprising also the Building of Race and Reservoir Embankments 
and Head-Gates, the Measurement of Streams, Gauging of Watei 
Supply, etc. By jAMES Leffel & Co. Illustrated by 58 engravings 
8vo. ......... (Scarce.) 

•LESLIE.— Complete Cookery: 

Directions for Cookery in its Various Branches. By MisS Leslie. 
Sixtieth thousand. Thoroughly revised, with the addition of New 
Receipts. i2mo. ... .$15'^ 

LE VAN.— The Steam Engine and the Indicator: 

Their Origin and Progressive Development; including the Mo.-t 
Recent Examples of Steam and Gas Motors, together with the Iiuii 
cator, its Principles, its Utility, and its Application. By William 
Barnet Le Van. Illustrated by 205 Engravings, chiefly of Indi 

cator-Cards. 469 pp. Svo • . ^2.00 

LIEBER.— Assayer's Guide ; 
Or, Practical Directions to Assayers, Miners, and Smelters, for the 
Tests and Assays, by Heat and by Wet Processes, for the Ores of a''l 
tjr principal Metals, of Gold and Silver Coins asd Alloys, and of 
Coal, etc. By Oscar M. Lieber. Revised. 283 pp. l2mG. S1.50 

liOckwood's Dictionary of Terms : 

Used in the Practice of Mechanical Engineering, embracing those 
Current in the Drawing Office, Pattern Shop, Foundry, Fitting, Turn- 
ing, Smith's and Boiler Shops, etc., etc., comprising upwards of Six 
Thousand D-^finitions. Edited by a Foreman Pattern Maker, authoi 
Ji " Patterr Alaking." 417 pp. l2mo. . . . ^53-75 



l8 FIENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUt.. 

LUKIN.— The Lathe and Its Uses: 
Or Insiruclion in the Art of Turning Wood and Metal. Including 
a Description oi llie Most Modern Appliances for the Ornamentation 
of Plane and Curved Surfaces, an Entirely Novt-l P'orm of Lathe 
for Eccentric and Rose-Engine Turning; A Lathe and Planing 
Macliine Combined; and Other Valuable Matter Relating to the 
Art. Illustrated by 462 engravings. Seventh edition. 315 pages. 

Svo #4.35 

!tfAIN and BROWN.— Questions on Subjects Connected with 
the Marine Steam-Engine ; 
And Examination Papers; with Hints for their Solution. By 
Thomas J. Main, Professor of Mathematics, Royal "«Iaval College, 
and Thomas Brown, Chief Engineer, R. N. i2mo., cloth . ;$!i.oo 
MAIN and BROWN. — The Indicator and Dynamometer: 
With their Practical Applications to the Steam-Engine. By THOMAS 
J. Main, M. A. F. R., Ass't S. Professor Royal Naval College, 
Portsmouth, and Thomas Brown, Assoc. Inst. C. E., Chief Engineer 
R. N., attached to the R. N. College. Illustrated. Svo. . 
MAIN and BROWN.— The Marine Steam-Engine. 
By Thomas J. Main, F. R. Ass't S. Mathematical Professor nt the 
Royal Naval College, Portsmouth, and Thomas Brown, Assoc. 
Inst. C. E., Chief Engineer R. N. Attached to the Royal Naval 
College. With numerous illustrations. Svo. 
MAKINS.— A Manual of Metallurgy: 

By Geo"rge HocARi II Makins. 100 engravings. Second edition 
rew^ritten and much enlarged. i2mo. 592 pages 

t/lARTIN.— Screw-Cutting Tables, for the Use of Mechanica) 

Engineers : 
Showing the Proper Arrangement of (Vheels for Cutting the Threads 
of Screws of any Required Pitch ; with a Table for Making the Uni 
versal Gas-Pipe Thread and Taps. By W. A. Martin, Engineer. 
8vo 50 

MICHELI.,.- Mine Drainage: 
Being a Complete and Practical Treatise on Direct-Acting Under 
rrcund Steam Pumping Machinery. Withi a Description of a laingt 
number of the best known Engines, their General Utility and Ihe 
Special Sphere of their Action, the Mode of their Application, and 
their Merits compared with other Pumping Machinery. By STEPHEN 
Michei.L. Illustrated by 247 engravings. 8vo., 369 pages. J1250 

MOLESWORTH — Pocket-Book of Useful Formulae and 
Memoranda for Civil and Mechanical Engineers. 
Hy GuiLFOKD L. Molesworth, Member of the Institution of Civil 
Engineers, Chief Resident Engineer of the Ceylon Railway. Full- 
bound in Pocket-book form . . r • . . $1.00 



HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALUGUU. ^9 



MOORB.— The Universal Assistant and *h^ Complete ^ 
cbanic i 
Containing over one million Industrial Facts, Calculations, Receipt^ 
Processes, Trades Secrets, Rules, Business Forms, Legal Items, Etc., 
in every occupation, from the Household to the Manufactory. Bj 
R. Moore. Illustrated by 500 Engravings. l2mo. . ^2.50 

MORRIS. — Easy Rules for the Measurement of Earthworks : 
By means of the PrisuKjidal Formula, jllustraled with Numerouy 
\Vocd-Cuts, Problems, and Examples, and cuncludeu by an Exten- 
sive Table for finding the Solidity in cubic yard-; from Mean Areas, 
The whole being adapted for convenient use by Engineers, Surveyor* 
Contractors, and others needing Correct Measurements of Earthwork 
By Elwood Morris, C. E. 8vo. . . . . . $1.56 

MAUCHLINE.— The Mine Foreman's Hand-Book 

Of Practical and Theoretical I-^.formaiion on ihe Opening, Venti 
lating, and Working of Collieries. Questions and Answers on Prac- 
tical and Theoretical Coal Mining. Designed to Assist Students and 
Others in Passing Examinations for Mine Foremanships. By 
Robert Mauchline. 3d Edition. Thoroughly Revised and En» 
larged by F. Ernest Brackett. 134 engravings, 8vo. 378 pages. 
(1905) $3.75 

If APIER.— 'A System of Chemistry Applied to Dyeing. 
By James Napier, F. C. S. A New and Thoroughly Revised Edl 
tion. Completely brought up to the ;->resent state of the Science, 
including the Chemistry of Coal Tar Colors, by A. A. Fesquet, 
Chemist and Engineer. With an Apjiendix 0,1 Dyeing and Calico 
Printing, as shown at the Universal Exposition, Paris, 1867. Illus 
trated. Svo. 422 pages ....... S2.50 

NEVILLE.— Hydraulic Tables, Coefficients, and Formul?e, to* 
finding the Discharge of Water from Orifices, Notches 
Weirs, Pipes, and Rivers; 
Tliird Edition, with Additions, consisting of New Formulae for the 
)ischarge from Tidal and Flood Sluices and Siphons; general infor 
nation on Rainfall, Catchment-Basins, Drainage, Sewerage, Wa.e» 
Supply for Towns and Mill Power Bv John Nevti.i.k. C. E. M P 
I, A. ; Fellow of the Royal Geological Society of Ireland. TMcJ 

I2mo Scarce 

lEWBERY.— Gleanings from Ornamental Art of every 
style : 
Drawn from Examples in the British, South Kensington, Indian, 
Crystal Palace, and other Museums, the Exhibitions of 1851 and 
1862, and the best English and Foreign works. In a series of 100 
exquisitely drawn Plates, containing many hundred examples. B* 
Robert Newberv. 4to. (Scarce. j 

NICHOLLS. —The Theoretical and Practical Boiler>Maker an* 
Engineer's Reference Book; 
Containing a variety of Useful Information for Employers of Labor 
i^'oremen a'\d Workina Boiler-Makers. Iroa, Copper, and Tinsmith* 



20 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'a CATALOGUE. 



Draughtsmen, Engineers, the General Steam-using Public, and for th* 
Use of Science Scliools and Classes. By Samuel Nichol?.s. Illus' 
trated by sixteen plates, i2nio. ..... $2.^c 

i^ICHOLSON.— A Manual of the Art of Bookbinding : 
Containing full insiruciions in tlie different Branches of Forwarding, 
Gliding, and Finishing;. Also, the Art of Marbling Book-edges and 
Paper. By James B. Nicholson. Illustrated. I2mo., cloth ^2.2$ 

NICOLLS.— The Railway Builder: 
A Hand-Book for Estimating the Probable Cost of American Rail- 
way Construction and Equipment. By WiLLlAM J. NiCOLLS, Civil 
Engineer. Illustrated, full bound, pocket-book form . Scarce 

NORMANDY. — The Cornmercial Handbook of Chemical An» 
alysis : 
Or Practical Instructions for the Determination of the Intrinsic oi 
Commercial Value of Substances used in Manufactures, in Trades, 
and in the Arts. By A. Normandy. New Edition, Enlarged, and 
to a great extent rewritten. By Henry M. Noad, Ph.D., F.R.S., 
thick i2mo Scarce 

NORRIS. — A Handbook for Locomotive Engineers and Ma 
chinists : 
Comprising the Proportions and Calculations for Constructing Loco 
motives; Manner of Setting Valves; Tables cf Squares, Cubes, Areas, 
etc., etc. By Septimus Norris, M. E. New edition. Illustrated, 
I2mo $i.sc 

NYSTRGM. — A New Treatise on Elements of Mechanics : 
Establishing Strict Precision in the Meaning of Dynamical Terms 
accompanied with an Appendix on Duodenal Arithmetic and Me 
trology. By John W. Nystrom, C. E. Illustrated. 8vo. 

NYSTROM. — On Technological Education and the Construc- 
tion of Ships and Screw Propellers : 
For Naval and Marine Engineers. By John W. Nystrom, lai. 
/Icting Chief Engineer, U. S. N. Second edition, revised, with addi 
tional matter, lllusirated by seven engravings, iznio. . ^1.25 

O'NEILL. — A Dictionary of Dyeing and Calico Printing: 
Containing a brief account of all the Substances and Processes' t 
use in the Art of Dyeing and Printing Textile Fabrics ; with Practfe 
Receipts and Scientific Information. By Charles O'Neill, Anal)" 
tical Chemist. To which is added an Essay on Coal Tar Colors ano 
their application to Dyeing and Calico Printing. By A. A. Ff.SQUET. 
Chemist and Engineer. With an appendix on Dyeing and Calici 
Printing, as shown at the Universal Exposition, Paris, 1867 8vo., 
491 pages . . ...... $2.00 

ORTON. — Underground Treasures*. 

How and Where to Find Them. A Key for the Ready Determination- 
of all the Useful Minerals within the United States. By jAMEb 
■vioK, A.M., Late Professor of Natural H-story in Vassar College, 
N. Y ; author of the "Andes and the Amazon," etc. A New Edi- 
tion, with An Apjiendix on Ore Deposits and Testing Minerals (1901). 
Illustrated gl-So 



HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 21 

OSBORN.— The Prospector's Field Book and Guide. 

In the Search For and the Easy Determination of Ores and Other 
Useful Minerals. By Prof. H. S. Osborn, LL. D. Illustrated by 66 
Engravings. Seventh Edition. Revised and Enlarged. 379 ]iages, 
i2mo. (March, I907) ^i-50 

OSBORN — A PracUcal Manual of Minerals, Mines and Min- 
ing: 
Comprising the Physical Properties, Geologic Positions, Local Occur- 
rence and Associations of the Useful Minerals; their Methods of 
Chemical Analysis and Assay ; together with Various Systems of Ex- 
cavating and Timbering, Bnci< and Masonry Work, during Driving, 
Lining, Bracing and other Operations, etc. By Prof. H. S. Osborn, 
LL. D., Author of ■' The Prospector's Field- Book and Guide." 171 
engravings. Second Edition, revised. 8vo. . . , ^.50 
OTERMAN.— The Manufacture of Steel : 
Containing the Practice and Principles of Working and Making Steel. 
A Handbook for Blacksmiths and W^orkers in Steel and Iron, Wagon 
Makers, Die Sinkers, Cutlers, and Manufacturers of Files and Hard- 
Ware, of Steel and Iron, and for Men of Science and Art. By 
Frederick Overman, Mining Engineer, Author of the " Manu- 
facture of lion," etc. A new, enlarged, and revised Edition. By 
A. A. Fesqu£T, Chemist and Engineer. i2mo. . . ^i.jo 
OVERMAN. — The Moulder's and Founder's Pocket Guide : 
A Treatise on Mouldingand Founding in Green-sand, Dry-sand,Loam, 
and Cement; the Moulding of Machine Frames, Mill-gear, Hollowr< 
ware. Ornaments, Trinkets, Bells, and Statues; Description of Moulds 
for Iron, Bronze, Brass, and other Metals; Plaster of Paris, Sulphur, 
Wax, etc. ; the Construction of Melting Furnaces, the Melting and 
Founding of Metals ; the Composition of Alloys and their Nature, 
etc., etc. By Frederick Overman, M. E. A new Edition, to 
which is added a Supplement on Statuary and Ornamental Moulding, 
Ordnance, Malleable Iron Castings, etc. By A. A. FesqueT, Chem' 
ist and Engineer. Illustrated by 44 engravings. i2mo. . $2.QM 
PAINTER, GILDER, AND VARNISHER'S COMPANION. 
Comprising the Manufacture and Test of Pigments, the Arts of Paint- 
ing, Graining, Marbling, Staining, Sign- writing, Varnishing, Glass- 
staining, and Gilding on Glass ; togetiier with Coach Painting and 
Varnishing, and the Principles of the Harmony and Contrast of 
Colors. Twenty-seventh Edition. >Revised, Enlarged, and in great 
part Rewritten. By William T. Brannt, Editor of " Varnishes, 
Lacquers, Printing Inks and Sealing Waxes." Illustrated. 395 pp. 

/2mo. . . . , $1 50 

PALLETT.— The Miller's, Millwright's, and Engineer's Guide. 
By Henry Pallett. Illustrated. i2mo. . . . $2.00 



82 MENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 



PERCY.— The Manufacture of Russian Sh:et-lron. 

Bv John Percy, M. D., F. R. S. Paper. 25 cts, 

PERKINS.— Gas and Ventilation; 

Practical Treatise on Gas and Ventilation. Illustrated. I2mo. ^1.25 
PERKINS AND STOWE.— A New Guide to the Sheet-iron 
and Boiler Plate Roller : 
Containing a Series of Tables >h;nviiiiT the WcisjIu of Slal's and Piles 
to Produce Boiler Plates, iiid of the Wei<^ht 01 Piles and the Sizes of 
Bars to produce Sheet-iron; the Thickne'^s of the Bar Gauge 
in decimals; the Weight per foot, and the Thickness on the Bar or 
Wire Gauge of the fractional parts of an inch; the Weight per 
sheet, and the Thickness on the Wire Gauge of Sheet-iron of various 
dimensions to weigh 112 lbs. per bundle; and the conversion of 
Short Weight into Long Weight, and Long Weight into Short. 

^1.50 
POSSELT. — Recent Improvements in Textile Machinery Re« 
lating to Weaving : 
Giving tiie Most Modern Points on the Construction of all Kinds 
of Looms, Warpers, Beamers, Slas'/ers, Winders, Spoolers, Reeds, 
Temples, Shuttles, Bobbins, Heddles, Heddle Frames, Pickers, 
Jacquards, Card Stampers, Etc., Etc. By E. A. PossELT. 410. 
Part I., 6co ills. ; Part II., 60C ills. Each part . . . $3.00 

Part III., 615 ills $7.50 

POSSELT. — Technology of Textile Design: 
The Most Complete Treatise on the Construction and Application 
of Weaves for all Textile Fabrics and the Analysis of Cloth. By E. 
A. Posselt. 1,500 illustrations. 4to. .... ^500 
POSSELT. — Textile Calculations: 

A Guide to Calculations Relating to the Manufacture of all Kinds 
of Yarns and Fabrics, the Analysis of Cloth, Speed, Power an<l Belt 
Calculations. By E. A. PosSELT. Illustrated. 4to. , ;^2.oo 
REGNAULT. — Elements of Chemistry: 

By M. V. Regnault. Translated from the French by T. Forrest 
Betton, M. D., and edited, with Notes, by James C. Booth, Melter 
and Refiner U. S. Mint, and William L. Faber, Metallurgist and 
Mining Engineer. Illustrated by nearly 700 wood-engiavings. Com- 
prising nearly 1,500 pages. In two volumes, 8vo., cloth . S6.00 
RICHARDS.— Aluminium : 

Its History, Occurrence, Properties, Metallurgy and Applications, 
including its Alloys. By Joseph W. Richards, A. C, Chemist and 
Practical Metallurgist, Member of the Deutsche Chemische Gesell- 
schaft. Illust. Third edition, enlarged and revised (1895) . ^6.00 
ftlFFAULT, VERGNAUD, and TOUSSAINT.— A Practical 
Treatise on the Manufacture of Colors for Painting : 
Comprising the Origin, Definition, and Classification of Colors; the 
Treatment of the Raw Materials ; the best Formulre and the Newest 
Processes for the Preparati<m of every description of Pigment, and 
the Necessary Apparatus and Directions for its Use; Dryers; the 
Testing, Application, and Qualities of Paints, etc., etc. By MM. 
RiFFAULT, Vergnaud, and Toussaint. Revfeed and Edited b-y M. 



HENRY CAREY BAiRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 



K. Malepeyrk. Traniiated from the French, by A. A. FesQQB^ 
Chemist and Engineer. Illustrated by Eighty engravings. In oci^ 
vol.. 8vo., 659 pages ^S**^ 

ROPER. — Catechism for Steam Engineers and Electricians: 
Including the Construction and Management of bteam Engines, 
Steam Boilers and Electric Plants. By Stephen Roper. Twenty, 
first edition, rewritten and greatly enlarged by E. R. Keller and 
C. W. Pike. 365 pages. Illustrations. i8mo., tucks, gilt. $2.00 

ROPER.— Engineer's Handy Book: 

Containing Facts, FormuLne, Tables and Questions on Power, its 
Generation, Transmission and Measurement; Heat, Fuel, and Steam; 
The Steam Boiler and Accessories; Steam Engines and their Parts; 
Steam Engine Indicator; Gas and Gasoline Engines; Materials; 
their Properties and Sirengtii ; Together with a Discussion of the Fun- 
damental Experiments in Electricity, and an Explanation of Dynamos, 
Motors, Batteries, etc., and Rules for Calculating Sizes of Wires. Bj 
Stephen Roper. 15ih edition. Revised and enlarged by E. R. 
Keller, M. E. and C. W. Pike, B. S. (1899), with numerous illus- 
trations. Pocket-book form. Leather $3-5^ 

ROPER. — Hand-Book of Land and Marine Engines : 
Including the Modelling, Construction, Running, and Management 
of Lanr" and Marine Engines and Boilers. With ilJustrations. Bj 
Stephen Roper. Engineer. Sixth edition. i2mo., ticks, gilt edge. 

^3-50 

ROPER.— Hand-Book of the Locomotive : 

Including the Construction of Engines and Boilers, and the Construc- 
tion, Management, and Running of Locomotives. By Stephen 
Roper. Eleventh edition. i8mo., tucks, gilt edge . $2.$i 

ROPER. — Hand-Book of Modern Steam Fire-Engines. 
With illustrations. By Stephen Roper, Engineer. Fourth edition, 
l2mo., tucks, gilt edge ....... $3-$^ 

ROPER. — Questions and Answers for Engineers. 

This little book contains all the Questions that Engineers will be 
asked when undergoing an Examination for the purpose of procuring 
Licenses, and they are so plain that any Engineer or Fireman of or 
dinary intelligence may commit them to memory in a short time. By 
Stephen Roper, Engineer. Third edition . . . $2.00 

ROPER.— Use and Abuse of the Steam Boiler. 

By Stephen Ropi^.r, Engineer. Eighth edition, with ilJustrations. 
i8mo., tucks, gik edge ^2.00 

ROSE. — The Complete Practical Machinist : 

Embracing Lr.the Work, Vise Worlc, Drills and Drilling, Taps and 
Dies, Hardening and Tempering, the Making and Use of Tools 
Tool Grinding, Marking out Work, Machine Tools, etc. By JoSHUA 
''"■"'■•■ 39' Engravings. Nineteenth Edition, greatly Enlarged with 
i\e\v and Valuable Matter. l2mo., 504 passes . . ^2.50 

ROSE— Mechanical Drawing Self-Taught: 

(Comprising In^lrucii'ins in tlie .Selection and Prc]5nration of Drawing 
^nstninients. El m niaiv Instr.iCtion in Practical Mechanical Draw- 



«4 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 

ing, together with Examples in Simple Geometry and Elementary 
Mechanism, including Screw Threads, Gear Wheels, Mechanical 
Motions, Engines and Boilers. By Joshua Rose, M. E. Illustrated 
by 330 engravings. 8vo ,313 pages .... $4.00 

ROSE.— The Slide- Valve Practically Explained: 

Embracing simple and complete Practical Demonstrations of th, 
operation of each element in a Slide-valve Movement, and illustrat- 
ing the effects of Variations in their Proportions by examples care- 
fully selected from the most recent and successful practice. By 
Joshua Rose, M. E. Illustrated by 35 engravings . $i.oo 

ROSS. — The Blowpipe in Chemistry, Mineralogy and Geology: 

Containing all Known Methods of Anhydrous Analysis, many Work- 
ing Examples, and Instructions for Making Apparatus. By LlEUT.- 
CoLONEL W. A. Ross, R. A., F. G. S. With 120 Illustrations, 

i2mo ^2.00 

SHAW.— Civil Architecture : 

Being a Complete Theoretical and Practical System of Building, con- 
taining the Fundamental Principles of the Art. By Edward Shaw, 
Architect. To which is added a Treatise on Gothic Architecture, etc. 
By Thomas W. Silloway and George M. Harding, Architects. 
The whole illustrated by 102 quarto plates finely engraved on copper. 
Eleventh edition. 4to. ....... ;J6.00 

SHUNK. — A Practical Treatise on Railway Curves and Loca 
tion, for Young Engineers. 

By W. F. Shunk, C. E. l2mo. Pull bound pocket-book form ;SS2.oe 
SLATER.— The Manual of Colors and Dye Wares. 

By J. W. Slater. lamo ^3.00 

SLOAN. — American Houses : 

A variety of Original Desif^ns for Rural Buildings. Illustrated by 
26 colored engravings, with descriptive references. By Samuel 
Sloan, Architect. 8vo. .75 

SLOAN. — Homestead Architecture: 

Containi.-.j Forty Designs for Villas, Cottages, and Farm-houses, with 
Ei.'s:iys on Styic, Construction, Landscape Gardening, Furniture, etc., 
etc. JUastrated by upwards of 200 engravings. By Samuel Sloan, 
Architect. 8vo. ........ $2.50 

8LOANE. — Ho.re Experiments m Science. 

By T. O'Conor Slca.ne, E. M., A.M., Fh. D. Illustrated by 91 
engravings. i2mo. ....... ^I.OO 

SMEATON.— Builder's Pocktt -Companion : 

^ Containing the Elements of Building, Surveying, and Architecture; 
with Practical Rules and Instructions co^.^ected with the subject. 
By A. C. Smeaton, Civil Engineer, etc. i2mo. 

GMITH. — A Manual of Political Economy. 

By E. Peshine Smith. A New Edition, to which is added a full 
Index. i2ino $l 21 



HEiNRV CAREY n/vlKu o. v-<^. n v-.v i . .L^oUE. 25 

SMITH. — Parks and Pleasure-Grounds : 

Or Practical Notes on Country Residences, Villas, Public Parks, and 
Gardens. By Charles H. J. Smith, Landscape Gardener and 
Garden Architect, etc., etc. l2mo. .... ;^2.oo 

SMITH.— The Dyer's Itistructor: 

Comprising Practical Insfuctions in the Art of Dyeing Silk, Cotton, 
Wool, and Worsted, and Woolen Goods ; containing nearly 800 
Receipts. To which is added a Treatise on the Art of Padding; and 
t.'ie Printing of Silk W.irps, Skeins, and Handkerchiefs, and th« 
V irious Mordants and Colors for the different styles of such work. 
Jy David S.mith, Pattc-n Dyer. i2ino. . . . jjl.oo 

S /lYTH. — A Rulimantary Treatise on Coal and Coal-Mining. 
By Warrington W. Smyth, M. A., F. R. G., President R. G. S. 
of Cornwall. Fifth edition, revised and corrected. With numer- 
ous illustrations. l2mo. ...... $i'40 

SNIVELY. — Tables for Systematic Qualitative Chemical Anal. 
ysis. 
By John H. Snively, Phr. D. 8vo. . . $1.00 

SNIVELY.— The Elements of Systematic Qualitative chemical 
Analysis : 
A Hand-book for Beginners. By John H. Snively, Phr. D. i6mo. 

$2.00 

STOKES. — The Cabinet Maker and Upholsterer's Companion: 

Comprising the Art of Drawing, as applicable to Cabinet W^ork; 
Veneering, Inlaying, and Buhl-Work; the Art of Dyeing and Stain 
ing Wood, Ivory, Bone, Tortoise-Shell, etc. Directions for Lacker- 
ing, Japanning, and V-rnishing; to make French Polish, Glues 
Cements, and Compos'.:^ ns; with numerous Receipts, useful to work 
men generally. Bv Stokes. Illustrated. A New Edition, with 
an Appendix upor .ench Polishing, Staining, Imitating, Varnishing, 
etc., etc. i2nio $i-2S 

STRENGTH AND OTHER PROPERTIES OF METALS; 
Reports of Experiments on the Strength and other Properties of 
Metals for Cannon. With a Description of the Machines for Testing 
Metals, and of the Classification of Cannon in service. By Officer? 
of the Ordnance Department, U. S. Army. By authority of the Secre- 
tary of War. Illustrated by 25 large hteel plates. Quarto . $5.00 

SULLIVAN. — Protectiori to Native Industry. 

By Sir Edward Sulliva.n, B.uonei, author of "Ten Chapters on 
Social Reforms." 8vo. ....... ^1.00 

SHERRATT.— The Elements of Hand-Railing: 

Simplified and Explained in Concise Problems that are Easily Under- 
stood. The whole illustrated with Thirty-eiglit Acciirate and Origi- 
nal Plates, Founded on Geometrical Principles, and Showing how to 
Make Rail Without Centre Joints, Making Better Rail of the Same 
Material, with lialf the Labor, and Showing How to Lay Out Stairs 
of all Kinds. By R. J. Shekratt. Folio. . . . $2.50 



26 HENRY CAREY BAIRl> & CO.'S CATALOGUE, 

SYME. — Outlines of an Industrial Science. 

By Davi'j Syme. i2mo. . . ... J2.0(i 

TABLES SHOWING THE WEIGHT OF ROUND, 
SQUARE, AND FLAT BAR IRON, STEEL, ETC., 
By Measurement. Cloih ...... 63 

THALLNER.— Tool-Steel : 

A Concise Handbook on Tool-Steel in General. Its Treatment in 
tlie Operations of Forging, Annealing, Hardening, 'I'empering, etc., 
and the Appliances Therefor. By Oi'TO Thallner, Manager ia 
Chief of tlie Tool-Steel Works, Bismarck hiitte, Germany. From the 
German by William T. Brannt. Illustrated by 69 engravings. 
194 pages. 8vo. 1902. |2.oo 

TEMPLETON. — The Practical Examinator on Steam and th< 

Steam-Engine: 

With Instructive References relative thereto, arranged for the Use of 

Engineers, Students, and others. By William Templeton, En. 

gineer. i2mo. ....•■•• ^i.oo 

THAUSING.— The Theory and Practice of the Preparation of 
Malt and the Fabrication of Beer: 
With especial reference to the Vienna Process of Brewing. Elab- 
orated from personal experience by JULius E. Thausing, Professor 
at the School for Brewers, and at the Agricultural Institute, Modling, 
near Vienna. Translated from the German by WiLLIAM T. BrANNT, 
Thoroughly and elaborately edited, with much American matter, and 
according to the latest and most Scientific Practice, by A. ScHWARZ 
and Dr. A. H. Bauer. Illustraieci by 140 Engravings. 8vo., 815 
pages .......... ^10.00 

THOMPSON. — Political Economy. With Especial Reference 
to the Industrial History of Nations : 
By RoHERT E. Thompson, M. A., Professor of Social Science in the 
University of Pennsylvania. i2rno. .... $I.5<) 

THOMSON.— Freight Charges Calculator: 

By Andrew Thomson, Freight Agent. 24mo. , . ^1.25 

TURNER'S (THE) COMPANION: 
Containing Instructions in Concentric, Elliptic, and Eccentric Turn. 
j'lg; also various Plates of Chucks, Tools, and Instruir.ents; and 
Directions for using the Eccentric Cutter, Drill, Vertical Cutter, and 
Circular Rest; with Patterns and Instructions for working them. 
i2mo ^I.oo 

TURNING : Specimens of Fancy Turning Executed on the 

Hand or Foot- Lathe : 1 

With Geometric, Oval, and Eccentric Chucks, and Elliptical Cutting 

Frame. By an Amateur. Illustrated by 30 exquisite Photographs. 

4to. . (Scarce.) 



HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. a; 

VAILE. — Galvanized- Iron Cornice-Worker's Manual: 

Containing Instructions in Laying out the Difterent Mitres, and 
Making Patterns for all kinds of Plain and Circular Work. Also, 
Tables of Weights, Areas and Circumferences of Circles, and oihet 
Matter calculated to Benefit the Trade. By Charles A. Vaile. 
Illustrated by twenty-one plates. 4to. . -, . .(Scarce.) 

VILLE. — On Artificial Manures : 

Their Chemical Selection and Scientific Application to Agriculture. 
A series of Lectures given at the Experimental Farm at Vincennes, 
during 1867 and 1S74-75. By M. Georges ViLLE. Translated and 
Edited by William Crookes, F. R. S. Illustrated by thirty-one 
engravint's. 8vo., 450 pages ^6.00 

VILLE.— The School of Chemical Manures : 
Or, Elementary Principles in the Use of Fertilizing Agents. From 
the French of M. Geo. Ville, by A. A. Fesquet, Chemist and En- 
gineer. With Illustrations. i2mo. .... jj^l.zj 

VOQDES. — The Architect's and Builder's Pocket- Companion 
and Price-Book : 

Consisting of a Shoit but Comprehensive Epitome of Decimals, Duo- 
decimals, Geometry and Mensuration; with Tables of United Stales 
Measures, Sizes, Weights, Strengths, etc., of Iron, Wood, Stone, 
Brick, Cement and Concretes, Quantities of Materials in given Sizes 
and Dimensions of Wood, Brick and Stone; and full and complete 
Bills of Prices for Carpenter's Work and Painting; also. Rules for 
Computing and Valuing Brick and Brick Work, Stone Work, Paint- 
ing, Plastering, with a Vocabulary of Technical Terms, etc. By 
Frank W. Vogdes, Architect, Indianapolis, Ind. Enlarged, revised, 
and corrected. In one volume, 368 pages, full-bound, pocket-book 

form, gilt edges ^2.00 

Cloth . . I.5« 

VAN CLEVE.— The English and American Mechanic: 

Comprising a Collection of Over Three Thousand Receipts, Rules, 
and Tnbles, designed for the Use of every Mechanic and Manufac- 
turer. By B. Frank Van Cleve. Illustrated. 500 pp. I2tio. ^2.00 

VAN DER BURG.— School of Painting for the Imitation of 

Woods and Marbles : 

A Complete, Practical Treatise on the Art and Craft of Graining and 

Marbling with the Tools and Appliances. 36 plates. Folio, 12 x 20 

inches ;j6.oo 

WAHNSCHAFFE.— A Guide to the Scientific Examinatioe 
of Soils : 
Comprising Select Methods of Mechanical and Chemical A laiysu 
and Physical Investigation. Translated from the German of Dr. F. 
WAHNSCHAFFE. With additions by William T. Brannt. Illus- 
trated by 25 engravings. i2mo. 177 pages . . . $1-$^ 

Hf ALTON- — Coal-Mining Described and Illustrated: 
By Thomas H. Walton, Mining Engineer. Illustrated by 24 lasp 
and .-iaborate Plates, after .Actual Workings and Apparatus. |t2.oo 



2S HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOC UE, 

"WARE.— The Sugar Beet. 

Including a History of the Beet Sugar Industry in Europe, Vanebei 
of the Sugar Beet, Examination, Soils, Tillage, Seeds and Sowing 
Yield and Cost of Cultivation, Harvesting, Transportation, Conserva' 
tion. Feeding Qu:ilities of the Beet and of the Pulp, etc. By Lewij 
S. Ware, C. E., M. E. Illustrated by ninety engravings. 8vo. 

"WARN.— The Sheet-Metal Worker's Instructor: 

For Zinc, SheetTron, Copper, and Tin-Plate Workers, etc. Contain- 
ing a selection of Geometrical Problems ; also. Practical and Simple 
Rules for Describing the various Patterns required in the different 
Jwanches of the above Trades. By Reuben H. Warn, Practical 
Tin-Plate Worker. To which is added an Appendix, containing 
Instructions for Boiler- Making, Mensuration of Surfaces and Solids, 
Rules for Calculating the Weights of difl'erent Figures of Iron and 
Steel, Tables of the Weights of Iron, Steel, etc. Illustrated by thirty- 
two Plates and 'hirty-seven Wood Engravings. 8vo. . $2.50 

AVARNER. — New Theorems, Tables, and Diagrams, for tht 
Computation of Earth-work : 

Designed for the use of Engineers in Preliminary and Final Estimates 
of Students in Engineering, and of Contractors and other non-profes. 
sional Computers. In two parts, with an Appendix. Parti. A Prac- 
tical Treatise; Part II. A Theoretical Treatise, and the Appendijt 
-Containing Notes to ihe Rules and Examples of Part I.; Explana 
■iions of the Construction df Scaler, T,.blc>, and Diagrams, and j 
Treatise upon Equivalent Square Bases and Equivalent Level Heights 
By John Warner, A. M., Mining and Mechanical Engineer, lllus- 
i -ated by 14 Plates. Svo. ...... ^3.00 

"WILSON. — Carpentry and Joinery : 

Bj John Wilson, Lecturer on Building Construction, Carpentry and 
Joinery, etc., in the Manchester Technical School. Third Edition, 
with 65 full-page plates, in flexible cover, oblong. . . (Scarce.) 

^VATSON— A Manual of the Hand-Lathe : 

Comprising Concise Directions for Working Metals of all kinds, 
Ivory, Bone, and Precious Woods ; Dyeing, Coloring, and French 
Polishing ; Inlaying by Veneers, and various methods practised to 
produce Elaborate work with Dispatch, and at Small Expense. By 
Egbert P. Watson, Author of "The Modern Practice of American 
Machinists and Engineers " Illustrated by 78 engravings. J?l.50 

WATSON. — The Modern Practice of American Machinists 
and Engineers : 

Including the Construction, Application, and Use of Drills, Lathe 
Tools, Cutters for Boring Cylinders, and Hollow-work generaHy, with 
the most Economical Speed for the same ; the Results verified by 
j\ctual Practice at the Lathe, the Vise, and on the floor. Togethei 



HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 29 

with Workshop Management, Economy of Manufacture, tlie Sieaii* 
Engine, Boilers, Gears, Belling, etc., etc. By Egbert P. Watson. 
Illiistra'ed liy eighty-six engravings. i2mo. . . . 32.50 

WATT.— The Art of Soap Making : 

A Practical liand-Book of the Manufacture of Hard and Soft Soaps, 
Toilet Soaps, etc. Fifth Edition, Reviseii, to which is added an 
Appendix on Modern Candle Making. By ALEXANDER Watt. 
111. l2nio S3.OO 

WEATHERLY.— Treatise on the Art of Boiling Sugar, Crys- 
tallizing, Lozenge-making, Comfits, Gum Goods, 
And other processes for Confectionery, including Methods for Manu- 
facturing every Description of Raw and Refined Sugar Goods. A 
New and Enlarged Edition, with an Appendix on Cocoa, Chocolate, 
Chocolate Confections, etc. 196 pages, 1 2mo. (1903) . ,^1.50 

WILL. — Tables of Qualitative Chemical Analysis • 

With an Introductory Chapter on the Course of r\naiysis. By Pro- 
fessor Heinrich Will, of Giessen, Germany. Third American, 
from the eleventh German edition. Edited by Charles F. Himes, 
Ph. D., Professor of Natural Science, Dickinson College, Carlisle, 
Pa. 8vo ■ ^1.50 

WILLIAMS.— On Heat and Steam : 

Embracing New Views of Vaporization, Condensation and Explo- 
sion. By Charles Wye Williams, A. I. C. E. Illustrated. 8vo. 

^2.50 

WILSON — First Principles of Political Economy: 

Witli Reference to Statesmanship and the Progress of Civilization. 
By Professor W. D. WiLSON, of the Cornell University. A new and 
revised edition. l2mo. ...... $l-S'^ 

WILSON. — The Practical Tool-Maker and Designer: 

A Treatise upon the Designing of Tools and Fixtures for Machine 
Tools and Metal Working Machinery, Comprising Modern Examples 
of Machines with Fundamental Designs for Tools for tlie Actual Pro- 
duclion of the work; Together witli Special Reference to a Set of 
Tools for Machining the Varipus Parts of a Bicycle. Illustrated by 
189 engravings. 1898. ...... ^2.50 

CONTENTS : Introductory. Chapter L Modern Tool Room and Equipment. 
n. Files, Their Use and Abuse. 111. Steel and Tempering. IV. Making Jigs. 
V. Milling Machine Fixtures. VI. Tools and Fixtures for Screw Machines. VII. 
Broaching. VIII. Punches and Dies for Cutting and Drop Press. IX. Tools for 
Hollow-Ware. X. Embossing: Metal, Coin, and Stamped Sheet-Metal Orna- 
ments. XI. Drop Forging. XII. Solid Drawn Shells or Ferrules ; Cupping or 
Cutting, and Drawing ; Breaking Down Shellh. XIII. Annealing, Pickling, and 
Cleaning, XIV. Tools for Draw Bench. XV. Cutting and Assembling Pieces 
by Meansof Ratchet Dial Plates at One Operation. XVI. The Header. XVII 
Tools for Fox Lathe. XVIII. Suggestions for a Set of Tools for Machining the 
Various Parts of a Bicycle. XIX. The Plater's Dynamo. XX. Conclusion— 
With a Few Random Ideas. Appendix. Index. 

WOODS — Compound Locomotives : 

By Arthur Tannatt Woods. Second edition, revised and enlarged 
by David Leonard Barnes, A. M., C. E. 8vo. 330 pp. ;?3.oo 



30 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 

WOHLER. — A Hand-Bookof Mineral Analysis: 

By F. WoHLER, Professor of Chemistry in the University of GSttin- 
gen. Edited by Henry B. Nason, Professor of Chemistry in the 
Renssalaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, New York. Illustrated. 
i2mo. J?2.5o 

WORSSAM. — On Mechanical Saws: 

From the Transactions of the Society of Engineers, 1869. By S. W. 
WoRssAM, Jr. Illustrated by eighteen large plates. 8vo. $1.5° 



RECENT ADDITIONS. 

BRANNT. — Varnishes, Lacquers, Printing Inks and Sealing- 
Waxes : 

Their Raw Materials and their Manufacture, to which is added the 
Art of Varni.shing and Lacquering, including the Preparation of Put- 
ties and of Stains for Wood, Ivory, Bone, Horn, and Leather. By 
William T. Brannt. Illustrated by 39 Engravings, 338 pages, 
lamo $3.00 

BRANNT. — The Practical Dry Cleaner, Scourer, and Gar- 
ment Dyer ; 
Comprising Dry or Chemical Cleaning; Purification of Benzine; Re- 
moving Stains or Spotting ; Wet Cleaning; Finishing Cleaned Fabrics; 
Cleaning and Dyeing Furs, Skins, Rugs, and Mats; Cleaning and 
Dyeing Feathers ; Bleaching and Dyeing Straw Hats ; Cleaning and 
Dyeing Gloves; Garment Dyeing; Stripping; Analysis of Textile 
Fabrics. Edited by William T. Brannt, Editor of "The Techno- 
Chemical Receipt Book." Third Edition, Revised and Enlarged. 
Illustrated by Twenty-Three Engravings. . . . . ^2 50 

BRANNT.— Petroleum . 

its History, Origin, Occurrence, Production, Physical and Chemical 
Constitution, Technology, Examination and Usesj Together with 
the Occurrence and Uses of Natural Gas. Edited chiefly from the 
German of Prof. Hans Hoefer and pr. Alexander Veith, by Wm. 
T. Brannt. Illustrated by 3 Plates and 284 Engravings. 743 pp. 
8vo. $S.SO 

BRANNT. — A Practical Treatise on the Manufacture of Vine- 
gar and Acetates, Cider, and Fruit- Wines : 
Preservation of Fruits and Vegetables by Canning and Evaporation; 
Preparation of Fruit-Butters, JeUies, Marmalades, Catchups, Pickles, 
Mustards, etc. Edited from various sources. By WiLLlAM T. 
Brannt. Illustrated by 79 Engravings. 479 pp. 8vo. ^5-0° 

BRANNT.— The Metal Worker's Handy-Book of Receipts 
and Processes : 

Being a Collection of Chemical Formulas and Practical Manipula- 
tion- for the working of all Metals; including the Decoration and 
Beautifying of Articles Manufactured therefrom, as well as their 
Preservation. Edited from various sources. By William T. 
Brannt. Illustrated. lamo. I2.50 



HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOUUE. 31 

DiEITE — A Practical Treatise on the Manufacture of Per- 
fumery : 

Comprising directions for making all Kinds of Perfumes, Sachet 
Powders, Fumigatin-^ Materials, Dentifrices, Cosmetics, etc., with a 
full account of the \'ulatile Oils, Balsams, Resins, and other Natural 
and Artificial Perfume-substances, including the Manufacture of 
Fruit Ethers, and tests of their purity. By Dr. C. Deite, assisted 
by L. BoRCHERV, F. Eichb.\um, E. Kuuler, H. Toeffner, and 
other experts. From the German, by Wm. T. Brannt. 28 Engrav 
ings. 358 pages. 8vo. f3<30 

EDWARDS. — American Marine Engineer, Theoretical and 
Practical : 

With Examples of the latest and most approved American Practice, 
By Emory Edwards. 85 illustrations. i2mo. . . ^2.00 

EDWARDS. — 900 Examination Questions and Answers: 

For Engineers and Firemen (Land and Marine) who desire to ob- 
tain a United States Government or State License. Pocket-book 

form, gilt edge $^-5^ 

FLEMMING. — Practical Tanning: 

A Handbook of Modern Processes, Receipts, and Suggestions for the 
Treatment of Hides, Skins, and Pelts of Every Description. By 
Lewis A, Flemming. American Tanner. 472 pp. Svo, (1903) ^4.00. 

POSSELT. — The Jacquard Machine Analysed and Explained: 

With an Appendix on the Pieparation of Jacquard Cards, and 
Practical Hmts to Learners of Jacquard Designing. By E. A. 
Posselt. With 230 illustrations and numerous diagrams. 127 pp. 

4to $300 

POSSELT. — Recent Improvements in Textile Machinery, 
Part III : 
Processes Required for Converting Wool, Cotton, Silk, from Fibre 
to Finished Fabric, Covering both Woven and Knit Goods ; Con- 
struction of the most Modern Improvements in Preparatory Machin- 
ery, Carding, Combing, Drawing, and Spinning Machinery, Winding, 
Warping, Slashing Machinery Looms, Machinery for Knit Goods, 
Dye Stuffs, Chemicals, Soaps, Latest Improved Accessories Relat- 
ing to Construction and Equipment of Modern Textile Manufactur- 
ing Plants. By E. A. Posselt. Completel" Illustrated. 4to. 

ftlCH. — Artistic Horse-Shoeing: 

A Practical and Scientific Treatise, giving Improved Methods of 
Shoeing, with Special Directions fo* Shaping Shoes to Cure Different 
Diseases of the Foot, and for the Correction of Faulty Action in 
Trotters. By George E. ";i-m 1,2 Ilhisn.itions. 153 paj^es ' 
\zmo ... . ' 2.00 



32 HENRY CARE^■ BAIRD & CO.»S CATALOGUE. 



RICHARDSON. -Practical Blacksmithing: 

A Collection of Articles Contributed at Different Times by Skilled 
Workmen to the columns of " The Blacksmith and Wheelwright," 
and Covering nearly the Whole Range of Blacksmithing, from the 
Simplest Job of Work to some of the Most Complex Forgings. 
Compiled and Edited by M, T. Richardson. 

Vol. I. 2IO Illustrations. 224 pages. I2mo. . • ^I.OO 

Vol. II. 230 Illustrations. 262 pages. I2mo, . . ■ |5l.OO 
Vol. Ill, 390 Illustrations, 307 pages. l2mo. , , jjl.oo 
Vol. IV. 226 Illustrations. 276 pages. l2mo. , . iSi.oo 

RICHARDSON.'— The Practical Horseshoer: 

Being a Collection of Articles on Horseshoeing in all its Branches 
which have appeared from time to time in the columns of " 1 he 
Blacksmith and Wheelwright," etc. Compiled and edited by M. T. 
Richardson. 174 illustrations $1.00 

ROPER.— Instructions and Suggestions for Engineers and 
Firemen : 
By Stephen Roper, Engineer. i8mo. Morocco . ;552.oo 

ROPER. — The Steam Boiler: Its Care and Management: 
By Stephen Roper, Engineer. i2mo., tuck, gilt edges. ;552.oo 

ROPER. — The Young Engineer's Own Book: 

Containing an Explanation of the Principle and Theories on whicl) 
the Steam Engine as a Prime Mover is Based. By Stephen Roper, 
Engineer. 160 illustrations, 363 pages. i8mo., tuck . $2.50 

ROSE. — Modern Steam-Engines: 
An Elementary Treatise upon the Steam-Engine, written in Plain 
language; for Use in the Workshop as well as in the Drawing Office. 
Giving Full Explanation i of the Construction of Modem Steans 
Engines : Including Diagrams showing their Actual operation. To- 
gether with Complete but Simple Explanations of the operations of 
Various Kinds of Valves, Valve Motions, and Link Motions, etc, 
thereby Enabling the Ordinary Engineer to clearly Understand the 
Principles Involved in their Construction and Use, and to Plot out 
their Movements upon the Drawing Board. By Joshua Rose. M. E, 
Illustrated by 422 engravings. Revised. 358 pp. . , $6,00 

ROSE.— Steam Boilers: 

A Practical Treatise on Boiler Construction and Examination, for the 
Use of Practical Boiler Makers, Boiler Users, and Inspectors; and 
embracing in plain figures all the calculations necessary in Designing 
or Classifying Steam Boilers. By Joshua Rose, M. E. Illustrated 
fay 73 engravings. 250 pages. 8vo $2.t^0 

SCHRIBER.— The Complete Carriage and Wagon Painter: 
A Concise Compendium of the Art of Painting Carriages, Wagons, 
and Sleighs, embracing Full DirecUons in all the Various Branches, 
Including Lettering, Scrolhng, Omanienting, Striping, Varnishing, 
and Coloring, with numerous Recipes for Mixing Colors. 73 Illus- 
txatJons. 177 pp. i2mo. ..,.•• #1 on 



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